216
C. Nabukalu and R. Giere
(Hilse, 2017). This means that the relevance of, and subsequent demand
for charcoal as an energy resource can be decoupled from the notion
of ‘energy poverty’, which suggests that charcoal consumption results
from the deficiency in electricity supply. Nabukalu and Gieré (2019)
assessed the realities of charcoal as a commodity and documented that
limited local production of charcoal does not mean low demand, as
charcoal can be traded on the informal, yet well-established international market. For example, after Oceania, Europe produced the least
average annual amounts of charcoal (0.5 Million tons) between 1993
and 2017. Nevertheless, demand for charcoal is still high in the European
countries, despite the wide access to, and reliable presence of electricity.
The demand for and the consumption of charcoal in more industrialized regions, especially in Europe and North America, are mainly for
leisure in warmer seasons (Bailis, Rujanavech, Dwivedi, Chang, & de
Miranda, 2013; WWF, 2018), yet its quantities are significantly high,
and primarily supplied by tropical wood from Africa, Asia and South
America.
Africa’s role as a significant exporter of charcoal from tropical and
other forests to the rest of the world is very significant, yet often
absent from the discourse in international energy procurement. The
most prominent exporters on the continent are Nigeria, Namibia and
Somalia, which feature in the world’s top 10 for the highest average
annual amounts of charcoal exported over the past two decades (FAO,
2019; Hilse, 2017; Nabukalu & Gieré 2019). Nigeria exports most of its
charcoal to Europe and Asia (mainly Germany, Poland, Belgium, Luxemburg, United Kingdom, Lebanon, Turkey). Namibia exports charcoal
to the USA and Europe (Zimmermann & Joubert, 2002; The Forest
Trust, 2018) and, according to Stassen (2015), up to 70% of its trade
is with Europe. Despite the ban in 1969, charcoal exports from Somalia
have continued, especially via the Southern port of Kismayo, where the
product is traded by sea to Iran (United Nations Environmental Program
[UNEP], 2018, 2019; Nichols, 2018). Indeed, over 4.8 million sacks
of charcoal are produced annually in the country’s Northeastern region,
which sustains local conflict over the proceeds from the international
trade (UNEP, 2018). Furthermore, Somalia’s Acacia bussei and various
Commiphora species are strongly preferred as trees for charcoal production, and are thus over-exploited, with the very slow-growing Acacia
C. Nabukalu and R. Giere
(Hilse, 2017). This means that the relevance of, and subsequent demand
for charcoal as an energy resource can be decoupled from the notion
of ‘energy poverty’, which suggests that charcoal consumption results
from the deficiency in electricity supply. Nabukalu and Gieré (2019)
assessed the realities of charcoal as a commodity and documented that
limited local production of charcoal does not mean low demand, as
charcoal can be traded on the informal, yet well-established international market. For example, after Oceania, Europe produced the least
average annual amounts of charcoal (0.5 Million tons) between 1993
and 2017. Nevertheless, demand for charcoal is still high in the European
countries, despite the wide access to, and reliable presence of electricity.
The demand for and the consumption of charcoal in more industrialized regions, especially in Europe and North America, are mainly for
leisure in warmer seasons (Bailis, Rujanavech, Dwivedi, Chang, & de
Miranda, 2013; WWF, 2018), yet its quantities are significantly high,
and primarily supplied by tropical wood from Africa, Asia and South
America.
Africa’s role as a significant exporter of charcoal from tropical and
other forests to the rest of the world is very significant, yet often
absent from the discourse in international energy procurement. The
most prominent exporters on the continent are Nigeria, Namibia and
Somalia, which feature in the world’s top 10 for the highest average
annual amounts of charcoal exported over the past two decades (FAO,
2019; Hilse, 2017; Nabukalu & Gieré 2019). Nigeria exports most of its
charcoal to Europe and Asia (mainly Germany, Poland, Belgium, Luxemburg, United Kingdom, Lebanon, Turkey). Namibia exports charcoal
to the USA and Europe (Zimmermann & Joubert, 2002; The Forest
Trust, 2018) and, according to Stassen (2015), up to 70% of its trade
is with Europe. Despite the ban in 1969, charcoal exports from Somalia
have continued, especially via the Southern port of Kismayo, where the
product is traded by sea to Iran (United Nations Environmental Program
[UNEP], 2018, 2019; Nichols, 2018). Indeed, over 4.8 million sacks
of charcoal are produced annually in the country’s Northeastern region,
which sustains local conflict over the proceeds from the international
trade (UNEP, 2018). Furthermore, Somalia’s Acacia bussei and various
Commiphora species are strongly preferred as trees for charcoal production, and are thus over-exploited, with the very slow-growing Acacia