251
yield of carbon catalysts such as CNTs and graphene is low, and the production cost
is high that limits their applications. The preparation cost of carbon catalyst can be
brought down by using low-cost substrate like biomass. The carbon catalysts made
from various biomass sources are described below.
Biomass-Derived Carbon Catalysts
The widely used carbon catalysts are carbon black and activated carbon. They are
primarily utilized as a support material for heterogeneous catalysts such as Ru/C
and Pd/C in reductive catalytic fractionation process to separate cellulose,
hemicellulose, and lignin [5]. The carbon catalyst from biomass (wood, bamboo,
Table 1 Microporous, mesoporous, and nanoparticle catalysts used for biomass conversion
Reaction
Catalyst
Conv/
yield, %
Reaction
conditions
Remark
Ref
Isomerization and
dehydration of glucose
to HMF
Mesoporous
AlSiO in THF/
H 2 O-NaCl
biphasic
system
91.7/63 Temp:
160 °C,
Time: 90 min
High catalytic
activity after four
reaction cycles. High
surface area and a
large number of
active sites
[20]
Dehydration of glucose
to HMF
HZSM-5
zeolite
80/42
Biphasic
aqueous
NaCl+ MIBK
system,
190 °C,
30 min
The activity of the
zeolite catalyst is
better than the silica
catalyst, short
reaction time
[36]
Hydrodeoxygenation of
guaiacol to
cyclohexane
Pt/HMFI-90
100/93
Liquid phase,
180 °C, 5 bar,
5 h
Higher activity of
acidic support,
reducibility in Pt has
a significant effect
[37]
Hydrodeoxygenation of
anisole to cyclohexane
Ni/Al-SBA-15 99.8/95 Liquid phase,
220 °C,
50 bar, 2 h
A synergetic effect
between support and
active phases
[38]
Hydrogenation of
furfural to furan
Pd NPs/S- 1 -OH 100/99.9 Gas-phase,
250 °C, atm
pressure
Wettability-driven
selective
hydrogenation
[39]
Hydrogenation of
furfural to
tetrahydrofurfuryl
alcohol
CuNi/MgAlO 99/95
Liquid phase,
150 °C,
40 bar, 3 h
High activity and
selectivity compared
to monometallic
catalysts
[40]
Hydrogenation of HMF
to DMF
Cu-Zn
nanoalloy
(<150 nm)
100/97
Temp:
220 °C,
20 bar, 18 h
A synergetic effect
between Cu and Zn
[41]
Aerobic oxidation of
HMF to 2,5-furancarboxylic acid
Ni-doped
MnO x
nanowires
100/94
Temp:
100 °C, 8 bar,
28 h
The special property
makes oxygen to be
easy come and easy
go
[42]
Sustainability of the Catalytic Process for Biomass Conversion: Recent Trends and…
yield of carbon catalysts such as CNTs and graphene is low, and the production cost
is high that limits their applications. The preparation cost of carbon catalyst can be
brought down by using low-cost substrate like biomass. The carbon catalysts made
from various biomass sources are described below.
Biomass-Derived Carbon Catalysts
The widely used carbon catalysts are carbon black and activated carbon. They are
primarily utilized as a support material for heterogeneous catalysts such as Ru/C
and Pd/C in reductive catalytic fractionation process to separate cellulose,
hemicellulose, and lignin [5]. The carbon catalyst from biomass (wood, bamboo,
Table 1 Microporous, mesoporous, and nanoparticle catalysts used for biomass conversion
Reaction
Catalyst
Conv/
yield, %
Reaction
conditions
Remark
Ref
Isomerization and
dehydration of glucose
to HMF
Mesoporous
AlSiO in THF/
H 2 O-NaCl
biphasic
system
91.7/63 Temp:
160 °C,
Time: 90 min
High catalytic
activity after four
reaction cycles. High
surface area and a
large number of
active sites
[20]
Dehydration of glucose
to HMF
HZSM-5
zeolite
80/42
Biphasic
aqueous
NaCl+ MIBK
system,
190 °C,
30 min
The activity of the
zeolite catalyst is
better than the silica
catalyst, short
reaction time
[36]
Hydrodeoxygenation of
guaiacol to
cyclohexane
Pt/HMFI-90
100/93
Liquid phase,
180 °C, 5 bar,
5 h
Higher activity of
acidic support,
reducibility in Pt has
a significant effect
[37]
Hydrodeoxygenation of
anisole to cyclohexane
Ni/Al-SBA-15 99.8/95 Liquid phase,
220 °C,
50 bar, 2 h
A synergetic effect
between support and
active phases
[38]
Hydrogenation of
furfural to furan
Pd NPs/S- 1 -OH 100/99.9 Gas-phase,
250 °C, atm
pressure
Wettability-driven
selective
hydrogenation
[39]
Hydrogenation of
furfural to
tetrahydrofurfuryl
alcohol
CuNi/MgAlO 99/95
Liquid phase,
150 °C,
40 bar, 3 h
High activity and
selectivity compared
to monometallic
catalysts
[40]
Hydrogenation of HMF
to DMF
Cu-Zn
nanoalloy
(<150 nm)
100/97
Temp:
220 °C,
20 bar, 18 h
A synergetic effect
between Cu and Zn
[41]
Aerobic oxidation of
HMF to 2,5-furancarboxylic acid
Ni-doped
MnO x
nanowires
100/94
Temp:
100 °C, 8 bar,
28 h
The special property
makes oxygen to be
easy come and easy
go
[42]
Sustainability of the Catalytic Process for Biomass Conversion: Recent Trends and…