99
A. niger species for the production of IA from inexpensive starch-based edible feedstocks [74]. They achieved IA titers of 15.65 g L
−1
from 120 g L
−1
corn starch
through submerged batch fermentation in 168 h.
Utilization of starch-rich sources for production of IA is a good alternative; however, it competes with our food sources. Therefore, non-food renewable raw material is highly desirable. In this regard, lignocellulosic biomass has grown substantial
attention, as it is abundant, inedible, carbon-neutral renewable source and extensively used for the production of biofuels and bio-products [75]. Xylose, a pentose
sugar, has also been employed as a feedstock for the synthesis of IA with immobilized A. terreus TKK 200–5-21,960 [76]. It yielded very low amounts of IA even
after a long fermentation period (165 h) in a continuous bioreactor. To improve the
productivity of IA, Saha et al. screened 100 A. terreus strains, among which 20
A. terreus strains effectively produced IA from xylose and arabinose [77]. The highest amount of IA obtained was 36.4 g L
−1
from 80 g L
−1
mannose in a shake flask by
strain NRRL 1961. Krull et al. described IA production from lignocellulosic biomass. They performed fermentation of agricultural residue “wheat chaff” by A. terreus [78]. It was found that alkaline pretreatment and subsequent enzymatic
saccharification are essential for effective IA production. The wild-type strain
A. terreus DSM 23081 produced 27.70 g L
−1
IA.
Jatropha curcas (J. curcas) seed cake is another promising agro-waste that can
be fermented for the production of IA. In 2007, Rao et al. proposed IA production
route from J. curcas seed cake by using A. terreus. The fermentation was performed
at various temperatures, times, pH, and agitation speeds. The highest IA yield (24.4
gL
−1
) was achieved after 120 h of fermentation [79]. To improve the yield of IA,
El-Imam et al. treated J. curcas seed cake in 50% sulfuric acid. The resulting slurry
was fermented by A. terreus at 1.5 pH, which gave 48.7 g L
−1
IA after 24 h [80]. In
2017, Omojasola et al. performed the fermentation of J. curcas seed cake by A. terreus and A. niger fungi [81]. The optimized fermentation conditions showed higher
IA yield from A. niger (290 g L
−1
) compared to A. terreus (218 g L
−1
) at pH 3.5 on
the eighth day.
Apart from corn starch, lignocellulosic residues, and J. curcas seed cake, glycerol has been identified as a potential substrate to produce IA. E. coli scvCadA_No8
produced a 7.2 g L
−1
yield of IA from glycerol in 2 L fed-batch fermentation reactor
under nitrogen-limited conditions [82]. Chang et al. metabolically engineered
E. coli by overexpression of Corynebacterium glutamicum pyruvate carboxylase for
production of IA [83]. Using this strain, they achieved 43 g L
−1
IA titers from glycerol. In addition to E. coli, U. vetiveriae TZ1 has also been used as a promising
organism for the production of IA, which achieved maximum IA titers of 34.70 g L
−1
at a rate of 0.09 g L
−1
h
−1
from 196 g L
−1
glycerol [84]. Gnanasekaran et al. recently
utilized superfluous algal biomass hydrolysate and purified glycerol for the production of IA by A. niveus [85]. In this process glycerol was first pre-treated with lipid
extracted Gracilaria edulis algal biomass residual and then fermented by A. niveus.
After 168 h of incubation, 31.55 g L
−1
of IA was produced from glycerol in a
shake flask.
Bio-Catalytic Itaconic Acid and Bio-Based Vinyl Monomer Production Processes
A. niger species for the production of IA from inexpensive starch-based edible feedstocks [74]. They achieved IA titers of 15.65 g L
−1
from 120 g L
−1
corn starch
through submerged batch fermentation in 168 h.
Utilization of starch-rich sources for production of IA is a good alternative; however, it competes with our food sources. Therefore, non-food renewable raw material is highly desirable. In this regard, lignocellulosic biomass has grown substantial
attention, as it is abundant, inedible, carbon-neutral renewable source and extensively used for the production of biofuels and bio-products [75]. Xylose, a pentose
sugar, has also been employed as a feedstock for the synthesis of IA with immobilized A. terreus TKK 200–5-21,960 [76]. It yielded very low amounts of IA even
after a long fermentation period (165 h) in a continuous bioreactor. To improve the
productivity of IA, Saha et al. screened 100 A. terreus strains, among which 20
A. terreus strains effectively produced IA from xylose and arabinose [77]. The highest amount of IA obtained was 36.4 g L
−1
from 80 g L
−1
mannose in a shake flask by
strain NRRL 1961. Krull et al. described IA production from lignocellulosic biomass. They performed fermentation of agricultural residue “wheat chaff” by A. terreus [78]. It was found that alkaline pretreatment and subsequent enzymatic
saccharification are essential for effective IA production. The wild-type strain
A. terreus DSM 23081 produced 27.70 g L
−1
IA.
Jatropha curcas (J. curcas) seed cake is another promising agro-waste that can
be fermented for the production of IA. In 2007, Rao et al. proposed IA production
route from J. curcas seed cake by using A. terreus. The fermentation was performed
at various temperatures, times, pH, and agitation speeds. The highest IA yield (24.4
gL
−1
) was achieved after 120 h of fermentation [79]. To improve the yield of IA,
El-Imam et al. treated J. curcas seed cake in 50% sulfuric acid. The resulting slurry
was fermented by A. terreus at 1.5 pH, which gave 48.7 g L
−1
IA after 24 h [80]. In
2017, Omojasola et al. performed the fermentation of J. curcas seed cake by A. terreus and A. niger fungi [81]. The optimized fermentation conditions showed higher
IA yield from A. niger (290 g L
−1
) compared to A. terreus (218 g L
−1
) at pH 3.5 on
the eighth day.
Apart from corn starch, lignocellulosic residues, and J. curcas seed cake, glycerol has been identified as a potential substrate to produce IA. E. coli scvCadA_No8
produced a 7.2 g L
−1
yield of IA from glycerol in 2 L fed-batch fermentation reactor
under nitrogen-limited conditions [82]. Chang et al. metabolically engineered
E. coli by overexpression of Corynebacterium glutamicum pyruvate carboxylase for
production of IA [83]. Using this strain, they achieved 43 g L
−1
IA titers from glycerol. In addition to E. coli, U. vetiveriae TZ1 has also been used as a promising
organism for the production of IA, which achieved maximum IA titers of 34.70 g L
−1
at a rate of 0.09 g L
−1
h
−1
from 196 g L
−1
glycerol [84]. Gnanasekaran et al. recently
utilized superfluous algal biomass hydrolysate and purified glycerol for the production of IA by A. niveus [85]. In this process glycerol was first pre-treated with lipid
extracted Gracilaria edulis algal biomass residual and then fermented by A. niveus.
After 168 h of incubation, 31.55 g L
−1
of IA was produced from glycerol in a
shake flask.
Bio-Catalytic Itaconic Acid and Bio-Based Vinyl Monomer Production Processes