81
3.6 Conclusions
The potential applications of nanomaterials in vertebrate controlled reproduction,
pre-natal cure, and regenerative medicine seem to be high, and require adequate
assessment of safety.
The advancement of artificial insemination techniques requires techniques for
sperm sorting, to select the gametes with higher fertilizing performance. In the case
of livestock, obtaining a sufficient amount of sperm bearing the X chromosome
permits the generation of economically valuable females, avoiding the need of male
castration. Techniques for sperm sorting became available decades ago; however,
the yield of traditional methods is poor, especially for livestock in which, like in the
swine, the selection of male gametes begins in the vagina, not in the uterine channel
(Rath et al. 2015). Several types of nanoparticles efficiently sort the sperm, with null
or minimal reproductive toxicity (Barkalina et al. 2016; Odhiambo et al. 2014; Rath
et al. 2015). Other nanoparticles improve the growth and differentiation of the early
embryo, cross the placenta (Grafmueller et al. 2013, 2015a, 2015b) and deliver
drugs to the zygote (Ali et al. 2013; Lopalco et al. 2015; Menjoge et al. 2011;
Remião et al. 2016), or do not cross the placenta and delivery the drugs to the
mother without exposing the fetus (Menezes et al. 2011).
Transfection without a viral capside is another interesting field for the theragnostics, and some nanoparticles can safely do it in gametes and embryos (Jin et al.
2016; Kim et al. 2010; Munk et al. 2016; Park et al. 2017; Remião et al. 2017). The
differentiation of stem cells into precursor and specialized cells is a promising field
for the advancement of regenerative medicine (Grande et al. 2017; Kingham and
Oreffo 2013; Leung et al. 2013; Ling et al. 2017; Shtrichman et al. 2014; Shahbazi
et al. 2011). Cardiac repair, (Ban et al. 2014), construction of vascular tissues (Hu
et al. 2012), neuronal regeneration (Hackelberg et al. 2017; Yang et al. 2014), and
osteogenic differentiation (Smith et al. 2010) are only few examples of the great
potential of nanomaterials in theragnostics.
As a consequence of all these attractive perspectives, the assessment of the reproductive safety of nanomaterials is necessary and requires appropriate methods and
tests. The traditional tests in vivo are costly and time-expensive; therefore, the alternative methods represent a real step in the field. This review tried to draw a rational
scheme of the numerous studies on the argument. The overall landscape reveals an
informative body of knowledge, with great potential for newer exploitations of
nanomaterials in husbandry, veterinary, and human medicine. The reproductive toxicity of many nanomaterials is moderate and acceptable. Waiting for well-defined
recommendations of the regulatory agencies, still lacking, the panel of alternative
tests for reproductive toxicity proposed for traditional chemicals seems to be adequate for the study of nanomaterials, eventually with some modifications ad hoc.
Some reviews that discuss the reproductive safety of nanomaterials and underline
the necessity of studies better focused on the characterization and dosing of the
potential toxic compounds, seem authoritative (Ema et al. 2016; Liu et al. 2016a).
Some frailty affecting the bodies of studies here considered is the lacking, in several
3 Safety and Utility of Nanomaterials on Reproduction and Development: An Update…
3.6 Conclusions
The potential applications of nanomaterials in vertebrate controlled reproduction,
pre-natal cure, and regenerative medicine seem to be high, and require adequate
assessment of safety.
The advancement of artificial insemination techniques requires techniques for
sperm sorting, to select the gametes with higher fertilizing performance. In the case
of livestock, obtaining a sufficient amount of sperm bearing the X chromosome
permits the generation of economically valuable females, avoiding the need of male
castration. Techniques for sperm sorting became available decades ago; however,
the yield of traditional methods is poor, especially for livestock in which, like in the
swine, the selection of male gametes begins in the vagina, not in the uterine channel
(Rath et al. 2015). Several types of nanoparticles efficiently sort the sperm, with null
or minimal reproductive toxicity (Barkalina et al. 2016; Odhiambo et al. 2014; Rath
et al. 2015). Other nanoparticles improve the growth and differentiation of the early
embryo, cross the placenta (Grafmueller et al. 2013, 2015a, 2015b) and deliver
drugs to the zygote (Ali et al. 2013; Lopalco et al. 2015; Menjoge et al. 2011;
Remião et al. 2016), or do not cross the placenta and delivery the drugs to the
mother without exposing the fetus (Menezes et al. 2011).
Transfection without a viral capside is another interesting field for the theragnostics, and some nanoparticles can safely do it in gametes and embryos (Jin et al.
2016; Kim et al. 2010; Munk et al. 2016; Park et al. 2017; Remião et al. 2017). The
differentiation of stem cells into precursor and specialized cells is a promising field
for the advancement of regenerative medicine (Grande et al. 2017; Kingham and
Oreffo 2013; Leung et al. 2013; Ling et al. 2017; Shtrichman et al. 2014; Shahbazi
et al. 2011). Cardiac repair, (Ban et al. 2014), construction of vascular tissues (Hu
et al. 2012), neuronal regeneration (Hackelberg et al. 2017; Yang et al. 2014), and
osteogenic differentiation (Smith et al. 2010) are only few examples of the great
potential of nanomaterials in theragnostics.
As a consequence of all these attractive perspectives, the assessment of the reproductive safety of nanomaterials is necessary and requires appropriate methods and
tests. The traditional tests in vivo are costly and time-expensive; therefore, the alternative methods represent a real step in the field. This review tried to draw a rational
scheme of the numerous studies on the argument. The overall landscape reveals an
informative body of knowledge, with great potential for newer exploitations of
nanomaterials in husbandry, veterinary, and human medicine. The reproductive toxicity of many nanomaterials is moderate and acceptable. Waiting for well-defined
recommendations of the regulatory agencies, still lacking, the panel of alternative
tests for reproductive toxicity proposed for traditional chemicals seems to be adequate for the study of nanomaterials, eventually with some modifications ad hoc.
Some reviews that discuss the reproductive safety of nanomaterials and underline
the necessity of studies better focused on the characterization and dosing of the
potential toxic compounds, seem authoritative (Ema et al. 2016; Liu et al. 2016a).
Some frailty affecting the bodies of studies here considered is the lacking, in several
3 Safety and Utility of Nanomaterials on Reproduction and Development: An Update…