3.5 The Greenhouse Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6 The CO 2 Accumulation in the Atmosphere and Correlation
to Health of Our Planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4 Reduction of the CO 2 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1 How Much of the GHGs Emission Should Be Cut? And
by When? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2 Efficiency in the Production of Electric Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3 Efficiency in the Transport Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.4 Energy Utilization Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.5 Quasi-zero-Carbon Emission Sources of Energy: Use
of Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5 The Alternative, Carbon-Free Primary Energy Sources
and Relevant Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.1 Carbon-Free Primary Sources Alternative to Fossil-C
and Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.2 The Use of Perennial Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.2.1 Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.2.2 Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.2.3 Hydro Energy (Both Internal Waters and Oceans) . . . . 68
5.2.4 Geothermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6 Reduction of Carbon Dioxide Emission into the Atmosphere:
The Capture and Storage (CCS) Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.1 The Capture of CO 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2 CO 2 Capture from Point Sources: Power Stations
and Industrial Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.3 Direct Capture from the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.4 Recovery from Mobile Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.5 Disposal of CO 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.6 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Produces an Economic
Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.7 Fixation of CO 2 into Long-Lasting Inorganic Materials . . . . . . . 85
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7 Properties of the Carbon Dioxide Molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1 Electronic Properties of CO 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1.1 The Ground State of Carbon Dioxide and Its
Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1.2 The Lowest Excited States of Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . 104
7.1.3 Main Features of Carbon Dioxide Reactivity . . . . . . . . 105
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3.6 The CO 2 Accumulation in the Atmosphere and Correlation
to Health of Our Planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4 Reduction of the CO 2 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1 How Much of the GHGs Emission Should Be Cut? And
by When? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2 Efficiency in the Production of Electric Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3 Efficiency in the Transport Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.4 Energy Utilization Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.5 Quasi-zero-Carbon Emission Sources of Energy: Use
of Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5 The Alternative, Carbon-Free Primary Energy Sources
and Relevant Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.1 Carbon-Free Primary Sources Alternative to Fossil-C
and Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.2 The Use of Perennial Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.2.1 Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.2.2 Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.2.3 Hydro Energy (Both Internal Waters and Oceans) . . . . 68
5.2.4 Geothermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6 Reduction of Carbon Dioxide Emission into the Atmosphere:
The Capture and Storage (CCS) Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.1 The Capture of CO 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2 CO 2 Capture from Point Sources: Power Stations
and Industrial Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.3 Direct Capture from the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.4 Recovery from Mobile Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.5 Disposal of CO 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.6 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Produces an Economic
Advantage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.7 Fixation of CO 2 into Long-Lasting Inorganic Materials . . . . . . . 85
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7 Properties of the Carbon Dioxide Molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1 Electronic Properties of CO 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1.1 The Ground State of Carbon Dioxide and Its
Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.1.2 The Lowest Excited States of Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . 104
7.1.3 Main Features of Carbon Dioxide Reactivity . . . . . . . . 105
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