E1FTOC 09/15/2010
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10 Flow Measurements
423
10.1
Introduction
423
10.2
Historical Background
423
10.3
Flow Rate Concepts
424
10.4
Volume Flow Rate Through Velocity Determination
425
10.5
Pressure Differential Meters
427
10.6
Insertion Volume Flow Meters
446
10.7
Mass Flow Meters
454
10.8
Flow Meter Calibration and Standards
459
10.9
Estimating Standard Flow Rate
460
10.10 Summary
461
References
461
Nomenclature
462
Problems
462
11 Strain Measurement
466
11.1
Introduction
466
11.2
Stress and Strain
466
11.3
Resistance Strain Gauges
469
11.4
Strain Gauge Electrical Circuits
476
11.5
Practical Considerations for Strain Measurement
479
11.6
Apparent Strain and Temperature Compensation
482
11.7
Optical Strain Measuring Techniques
492
11.8
Summary
497
References
498
Nomenclature
498
Problems
499
12 Mechatronics: Sensors, Actuators, and Controls
504
12.1
Introduction
504
12.2
Sensors
504
12.3
Actuators
534
12.4
Controls
540
12.5
Summary
557
Nomenclature
558
References
558
Problems
559
viii Contents