Canada, Norway, Scotland, Ireland, Sweden and Germany; Buck and Buchholz
2004a, 2005; Chopin et al. 2004; Barrington et al. 2009; Broch et al. 2013; Marinho
et al. 2015; Kraemer et al. 2014; Kim et al. 2015a) and Macrocystis in the eastern
Pacific Ocean (e.g. Chile; Buschmann et al. 2008). The kelp aquaculture industry in
western countries has become one of the fastest growing industries.
For both Saccharina and Undaria, cultivation begins with zoospores (meiospores) for seeding. The seeding methods are a bit different between Asia (use of
seed frames) and the West (use of seedspools), mainly due to the nursery capacities
and the scale of operations of the open water farms (Redmond et al. 2014).
However, the open water cultivation techniques use very similar longlines. Once
the seedstring is outplanted in the open water farms, the kelp thalli will grow up to
2–5 m in length, even to 10 m sometimes (Pereira and Yarish 2008; Redmond et al.
2014).
Facing climate change, many efforts are deployed to develop kelp strains that
grow fast, are resistant to disease and tolerate higher temperatures. Selective
breeding and intensive selection of kelp strains in Asia, however, have reduced the
genetic diversity and narrowed the germplasm base of the varieties in cultivation.
This has led to decreased adaptability of these varieties to environmental changes
and jeopardizes the industry expansion in Asia (Kawashima and Tokuda 1993; Li
et al. 2009; Robinson et al. 2013). In North America and Europe, strain development will be a challenge. The collection of zoospore “seeds” has relied mostly on
wild sources. Development of a seedbank for kelp species will provide a sustainable
and reliable source of seedstock without impacting the natural beds of seaweeds.
Having seaweeds with desirable morphological and physiological traits will also
enhance production capacity of the seaweed industry. Other challenges in these
parts of the world are the legal aspects and the social syndrome known as NIMBY
(“Not In My Back Yard”). For example, in the USA at least 120 federal laws were
identified that affect aquaculture either directly (50 laws) or indirectly (70 laws) and
more than 1200 state statutes regulate aquaculture in 32 states (Getchis et al. 2008).
Regulatory complexity is further increased when towns or counties are given
jurisdiction over local waters. Social resistance has also been a major factor limiting
the growth of aquaculture in the USA. The nearshore waters of the USA are heavily
used, having both recreational (boating, fishing, swimming) and aesthetic (ocean
and bay views from waterfront homes) values. For that reason, offshore cultivation
has been suggested as an alternative to avoid stakeholder conflicts (Langan and
Horton 2005; Rensel et al. 2011; Buchholz et al. 2012).
Since nutrients may be limiting in offshore environments, an IMTA systems may
be more appropriate than monoculture (Troell et al. 2009; Buchholz et al. 2012).
Considering current cultivation techniques, the kelp species should be one of the
most appropriate groups to cultivate offshore due to their low maintenance
requirement and ease of harvest in comparison to other cultured species. The IMTA
practices of offshore farms are unlikely to experience user conflicts, which may
result in fewer restrictions on farm size and greater economies of scale.
2 Offshore and Multi-Use Aquaculture with Extractive Species…
31
2004a, 2005; Chopin et al. 2004; Barrington et al. 2009; Broch et al. 2013; Marinho
et al. 2015; Kraemer et al. 2014; Kim et al. 2015a) and Macrocystis in the eastern
Pacific Ocean (e.g. Chile; Buschmann et al. 2008). The kelp aquaculture industry in
western countries has become one of the fastest growing industries.
For both Saccharina and Undaria, cultivation begins with zoospores (meiospores) for seeding. The seeding methods are a bit different between Asia (use of
seed frames) and the West (use of seedspools), mainly due to the nursery capacities
and the scale of operations of the open water farms (Redmond et al. 2014).
However, the open water cultivation techniques use very similar longlines. Once
the seedstring is outplanted in the open water farms, the kelp thalli will grow up to
2–5 m in length, even to 10 m sometimes (Pereira and Yarish 2008; Redmond et al.
2014).
Facing climate change, many efforts are deployed to develop kelp strains that
grow fast, are resistant to disease and tolerate higher temperatures. Selective
breeding and intensive selection of kelp strains in Asia, however, have reduced the
genetic diversity and narrowed the germplasm base of the varieties in cultivation.
This has led to decreased adaptability of these varieties to environmental changes
and jeopardizes the industry expansion in Asia (Kawashima and Tokuda 1993; Li
et al. 2009; Robinson et al. 2013). In North America and Europe, strain development will be a challenge. The collection of zoospore “seeds” has relied mostly on
wild sources. Development of a seedbank for kelp species will provide a sustainable
and reliable source of seedstock without impacting the natural beds of seaweeds.
Having seaweeds with desirable morphological and physiological traits will also
enhance production capacity of the seaweed industry. Other challenges in these
parts of the world are the legal aspects and the social syndrome known as NIMBY
(“Not In My Back Yard”). For example, in the USA at least 120 federal laws were
identified that affect aquaculture either directly (50 laws) or indirectly (70 laws) and
more than 1200 state statutes regulate aquaculture in 32 states (Getchis et al. 2008).
Regulatory complexity is further increased when towns or counties are given
jurisdiction over local waters. Social resistance has also been a major factor limiting
the growth of aquaculture in the USA. The nearshore waters of the USA are heavily
used, having both recreational (boating, fishing, swimming) and aesthetic (ocean
and bay views from waterfront homes) values. For that reason, offshore cultivation
has been suggested as an alternative to avoid stakeholder conflicts (Langan and
Horton 2005; Rensel et al. 2011; Buchholz et al. 2012).
Since nutrients may be limiting in offshore environments, an IMTA systems may
be more appropriate than monoculture (Troell et al. 2009; Buchholz et al. 2012).
Considering current cultivation techniques, the kelp species should be one of the
most appropriate groups to cultivate offshore due to their low maintenance
requirement and ease of harvest in comparison to other cultured species. The IMTA
practices of offshore farms are unlikely to experience user conflicts, which may
result in fewer restrictions on farm size and greater economies of scale.
2 Offshore and Multi-Use Aquaculture with Extractive Species…
31