animal feed, food, and non-food products (Buck 2004). For instance, sugars, proteins and fatty acids (principally omega 3s) from seaweeds can form an alternative
to soya and fishmeal. Further, the use of seaweeds for the production of chemicals
and biofuels could be a climate-friendly alternative to fossil raw materials.
Seaweed aquaculture technologies for land based, as well as sheltered nearshore
areas, have developed dramatically in Asia and to a lesser extend in South America.
In contrast, technologies to move offshore were developed in Americas and Europe
over the last 15 years. There are still challenges to overcome, which vary depending
on species, technologies and countries. In Europe, mainly kelps were tested in first
offshore trials during the early 1990s (Lüning and Buchholtz 1996). France and
Germany were the first investing countries for offshore seaweed cultivation followed by UK and Ireland, 10 years later. Today, the Netherlands, Denmark, Spain,
Portugal, as well as Norway, are carrying out seaweed farming trials off the coast.
Most of the investigations are still carried out on a pilot scale. Only a few farms off
the coast are in early commercial operations, such as enterprises in Germany (e.g.
CRM 2001), Norway (e.g. SES 2015a, b), and The Netherlands (Hortimare 2016).
2.4.2 Bivalves
In 2014, the annual production of bivalves, including mussels and oysters, reached
approximately 7 million t, which is equivalent to one quarter of the annual seaweed
production (approximately 27 million t) (FAO 2016a, b). In Europe, the blue
mussel (Mytilus edulis) and the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis)
are the main cultured species reaching approximately 500,000 t annually. The main
producers are Spain (220,000 t), Italy (80,000 t), France (75,000 t), the Netherlands
(55,000 t), the UK (23,000 t) and Germany (6000 t) (FAO 2016a, b). Other
important countries outside of Europe producing mussels are China (800,000 t),
Chile (240,000 t), Thailand (125,000 t), South Korea (52,000 t), New Zealand
(38,000 t), Canada (26,000 t), Brazil (20,000 t) and the Philippines (19,000 t). In
2014, approximately 5.2 million t of oysters were produced worldwide, dominated
by the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas). In Europe, the introduced Pacific oyster
reaches %90,000 t headed by France with %75,000 t, followed by Ireland with
9000 t, the Netherlands with %2500 t and Norway with %2000 t. Other countries
outside of Europe are China with %4.3 million t, South Korea with %285,000 t,
Japan with %185,000 t, the USA with %125,000 t, the Philippines, Taiwan and
Thailand with %22,000 t, and Australia and Canada with %12,000 t. The European
flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) is cultured to a minor extent only with approximately
2500 t in 2014 led by France and followed by Ireland, Spain and the Netherlands
(FAO 2016a, b).
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B.H. Buck et al.
to soya and fishmeal. Further, the use of seaweeds for the production of chemicals
and biofuels could be a climate-friendly alternative to fossil raw materials.
Seaweed aquaculture technologies for land based, as well as sheltered nearshore
areas, have developed dramatically in Asia and to a lesser extend in South America.
In contrast, technologies to move offshore were developed in Americas and Europe
over the last 15 years. There are still challenges to overcome, which vary depending
on species, technologies and countries. In Europe, mainly kelps were tested in first
offshore trials during the early 1990s (Lüning and Buchholtz 1996). France and
Germany were the first investing countries for offshore seaweed cultivation followed by UK and Ireland, 10 years later. Today, the Netherlands, Denmark, Spain,
Portugal, as well as Norway, are carrying out seaweed farming trials off the coast.
Most of the investigations are still carried out on a pilot scale. Only a few farms off
the coast are in early commercial operations, such as enterprises in Germany (e.g.
CRM 2001), Norway (e.g. SES 2015a, b), and The Netherlands (Hortimare 2016).
2.4.2 Bivalves
In 2014, the annual production of bivalves, including mussels and oysters, reached
approximately 7 million t, which is equivalent to one quarter of the annual seaweed
production (approximately 27 million t) (FAO 2016a, b). In Europe, the blue
mussel (Mytilus edulis) and the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis)
are the main cultured species reaching approximately 500,000 t annually. The main
producers are Spain (220,000 t), Italy (80,000 t), France (75,000 t), the Netherlands
(55,000 t), the UK (23,000 t) and Germany (6000 t) (FAO 2016a, b). Other
important countries outside of Europe producing mussels are China (800,000 t),
Chile (240,000 t), Thailand (125,000 t), South Korea (52,000 t), New Zealand
(38,000 t), Canada (26,000 t), Brazil (20,000 t) and the Philippines (19,000 t). In
2014, approximately 5.2 million t of oysters were produced worldwide, dominated
by the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas). In Europe, the introduced Pacific oyster
reaches %90,000 t headed by France with %75,000 t, followed by Ireland with
9000 t, the Netherlands with %2500 t and Norway with %2000 t. Other countries
outside of Europe are China with %4.3 million t, South Korea with %285,000 t,
Japan with %185,000 t, the USA with %125,000 t, the Philippines, Taiwan and
Thailand with %22,000 t, and Australia and Canada with %12,000 t. The European
flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) is cultured to a minor extent only with approximately
2500 t in 2014 led by France and followed by Ireland, Spain and the Netherlands
(FAO 2016a, b).
28
B.H. Buck et al.