constraints on expansion of current methods of production, it is clear that alternative
approaches are needed in order for the marine aquaculture sector to make a
meaningful contribution to global seafood supply. Farming in offshore marine
waters has been identified as one potential option for increasing seafood production
and has been a focus of international attention for more than a decade. Though there
are technical challenges for farming in the frequently hostile open ocean environment, there is sufficient rationale for pursuing the development of offshore farming.
Favorable features of open ocean waters include ample space for expansion,
tremendous carrying and assimilative capacity, reduced conflict with many user
groups, lower exposure to human sources of pollution, the potential to reduce some
of the negative environmental impacts of coastal fish farming (Ryan 2004; Buck
2004; Helsley and Kim 2005; Ward et al. 2006; Langan 2007), and optimal
environmental conditions for a wide variety of marine species (Ostrowski and
Helsley 2003; Ryan 2004; Howell et al. 2006; Benetti et al. 2006; Langan and
Horton 2003). Those features, coupled with advances in farming technology
(Fredheim and Langan 2009) would seem to present an excellent opportunity for
growth, however, development in offshore waters has been measured. This has been
due in large part to the spill over from the opposition to nearshore marine farming
and the lack of a regulatory framework for permitting, siting and managing industry
development. Without legal access to favorable sites and a “social license” to
operate without undue regulatory hardship, it will be difficult for open ocean
aquaculture to realize its true potential. Some parallels can be drawn between ocean
aquaculture and electricity generation. Continued reliance on traditional methods of
production, which for electricity means fossil fuels, is environmentally and economically unsustainable. There is appropriate technology available to both sectors,
and most would agree that securing our energy and seafood futures are in the
collective national interest. The most advanced and proven renewable sector for
ocean power generation is wind turbines, and with substantial offshore wind
resources in the, one would think there would be tremendous potential for development of this sector and public support for development. The casual observer
might view the ocean as a vast and barren place, with lots of space to put wind
turbines and fish farms. However, if we start to map out existing human uses such
as shipping lanes, pipelines, cables, LNG terminals, and fishing grounds, and add to
that ecological resource areas that require some degree of protection such as whale
and turtle migration routes, migratory bird flyways, spawning grounds, and sensitive habitats such as corals, the ocean begins to look like a crowed place. Therefore,
when trying to locate new ocean uses, it may be worthwhile to explore possibilities
for co-location of facilities, in this case wind turbines and fish and shellfish farms.
While some might argue that trying to co-locate two activities that are individually
controversial would be a permitting nightmare, general agreement can probably be
reached that there are benefits to be gained by reducing the overall footprint of
human uses in the ocean. Meeting the challenges of multi-use facilities in the open
ocean will require careful analysis and planning; however, the opportunity to
co-locate sustainable seafood and renewable energy production facilities is
2
P. Holm et al.
approaches are needed in order for the marine aquaculture sector to make a
meaningful contribution to global seafood supply. Farming in offshore marine
waters has been identified as one potential option for increasing seafood production
and has been a focus of international attention for more than a decade. Though there
are technical challenges for farming in the frequently hostile open ocean environment, there is sufficient rationale for pursuing the development of offshore farming.
Favorable features of open ocean waters include ample space for expansion,
tremendous carrying and assimilative capacity, reduced conflict with many user
groups, lower exposure to human sources of pollution, the potential to reduce some
of the negative environmental impacts of coastal fish farming (Ryan 2004; Buck
2004; Helsley and Kim 2005; Ward et al. 2006; Langan 2007), and optimal
environmental conditions for a wide variety of marine species (Ostrowski and
Helsley 2003; Ryan 2004; Howell et al. 2006; Benetti et al. 2006; Langan and
Horton 2003). Those features, coupled with advances in farming technology
(Fredheim and Langan 2009) would seem to present an excellent opportunity for
growth, however, development in offshore waters has been measured. This has been
due in large part to the spill over from the opposition to nearshore marine farming
and the lack of a regulatory framework for permitting, siting and managing industry
development. Without legal access to favorable sites and a “social license” to
operate without undue regulatory hardship, it will be difficult for open ocean
aquaculture to realize its true potential. Some parallels can be drawn between ocean
aquaculture and electricity generation. Continued reliance on traditional methods of
production, which for electricity means fossil fuels, is environmentally and economically unsustainable. There is appropriate technology available to both sectors,
and most would agree that securing our energy and seafood futures are in the
collective national interest. The most advanced and proven renewable sector for
ocean power generation is wind turbines, and with substantial offshore wind
resources in the, one would think there would be tremendous potential for development of this sector and public support for development. The casual observer
might view the ocean as a vast and barren place, with lots of space to put wind
turbines and fish farms. However, if we start to map out existing human uses such
as shipping lanes, pipelines, cables, LNG terminals, and fishing grounds, and add to
that ecological resource areas that require some degree of protection such as whale
and turtle migration routes, migratory bird flyways, spawning grounds, and sensitive habitats such as corals, the ocean begins to look like a crowed place. Therefore,
when trying to locate new ocean uses, it may be worthwhile to explore possibilities
for co-location of facilities, in this case wind turbines and fish and shellfish farms.
While some might argue that trying to co-locate two activities that are individually
controversial would be a permitting nightmare, general agreement can probably be
reached that there are benefits to be gained by reducing the overall footprint of
human uses in the ocean. Meeting the challenges of multi-use facilities in the open
ocean will require careful analysis and planning; however, the opportunity to
co-locate sustainable seafood and renewable energy production facilities is
2
P. Holm et al.