time. This category is not the main focus of this discussion, though contrasts
between this category and the others will be made.
(2) Off-the-Coast aquaculture—Operations that are 500 m to 3 km from the coast.
Generally, they are within the Continental Shelf zone or open ocean and with
water depths of 10–50 m and wave heights of less than 3–4 m. These locations
are exposed greater than 90° to the open ocean and include some automation to
operate.
(3) Offshore aquaculture—Operations located greater than 2 km or out of sight
from the coast, in water depths greater than 50 m, with wave heights of 5 m or
more, ocean swells, variable winds and strong currents. These locations are
exposed equal to or greater than 180° to the open sea and there is a great need
for automation of these remote operations (Lovatelli et al. 2013).
These discussions focus on off-the-coast and offshore locations for standalone
and co-located aquaculture farms. The term open ocean will be used when both
locations are being discussed.
9.2.1 Standalone Aquaculture Projects
Standalone commercial aquaculture in off-the-coast and offshore environments is an
emerging activity in many countries that have a history of land-based and coastal
marine aquaculture development. As a result, off-the-coast farming technology is
evident in many developed countries and is being touted in developing countries for
expansion of fish production. Moreover, while offshore technology has been proven
technically feasible, it’s wide spread application has been slow due to the significant
logistical, technical and economic challenges of operating a farm at a site exposed
to open ocean winds, waves and currents (Lovatelli et al. 2013).
A recent study of the status and potential of global offshore mariculture from a
spatial perspective (suitable area) utilizing nations with existing industry is
instructive. Between 2004 and 2008, 93 nations produced an average yearly production of 30 Mmt, with a mean of 15 tonnes/km of coastline and a median value of
1 tonne/km, indicating a few large producers and many small ones. The maximum
observed value was 520 tonnes/km. About half the 93 producing nations have
production of less than 1 tonne/km of coastline (Kapetsky et al. 2013).
Indicative of potential, 80 of these producing nations have a total coastline
length of 1,472,111 km, while at present 44% of maritime nations with 0.3 million
km of coast line are not practicing mariculture. Nations with the greatest long-term
development potential based on coastline length are Canada, Indonesia, and Chile.
Nations with the greatest long-term potential based on area of their EEZ are Russia,
the United States and France (Kapetsky et al. 2013).
Most of temperate water marine fish production in ocean locations is located in
Northern Europe (40%), followed by South America (27%); with Norway and
Chile dominating. Atlantic salmon is the dominant fish, with Norway the largest
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J.S. Corbin et al.
between this category and the others will be made.
(2) Off-the-Coast aquaculture—Operations that are 500 m to 3 km from the coast.
Generally, they are within the Continental Shelf zone or open ocean and with
water depths of 10–50 m and wave heights of less than 3–4 m. These locations
are exposed greater than 90° to the open ocean and include some automation to
operate.
(3) Offshore aquaculture—Operations located greater than 2 km or out of sight
from the coast, in water depths greater than 50 m, with wave heights of 5 m or
more, ocean swells, variable winds and strong currents. These locations are
exposed equal to or greater than 180° to the open sea and there is a great need
for automation of these remote operations (Lovatelli et al. 2013).
These discussions focus on off-the-coast and offshore locations for standalone
and co-located aquaculture farms. The term open ocean will be used when both
locations are being discussed.
9.2.1 Standalone Aquaculture Projects
Standalone commercial aquaculture in off-the-coast and offshore environments is an
emerging activity in many countries that have a history of land-based and coastal
marine aquaculture development. As a result, off-the-coast farming technology is
evident in many developed countries and is being touted in developing countries for
expansion of fish production. Moreover, while offshore technology has been proven
technically feasible, it’s wide spread application has been slow due to the significant
logistical, technical and economic challenges of operating a farm at a site exposed
to open ocean winds, waves and currents (Lovatelli et al. 2013).
A recent study of the status and potential of global offshore mariculture from a
spatial perspective (suitable area) utilizing nations with existing industry is
instructive. Between 2004 and 2008, 93 nations produced an average yearly production of 30 Mmt, with a mean of 15 tonnes/km of coastline and a median value of
1 tonne/km, indicating a few large producers and many small ones. The maximum
observed value was 520 tonnes/km. About half the 93 producing nations have
production of less than 1 tonne/km of coastline (Kapetsky et al. 2013).
Indicative of potential, 80 of these producing nations have a total coastline
length of 1,472,111 km, while at present 44% of maritime nations with 0.3 million
km of coast line are not practicing mariculture. Nations with the greatest long-term
development potential based on coastline length are Canada, Indonesia, and Chile.
Nations with the greatest long-term potential based on area of their EEZ are Russia,
the United States and France (Kapetsky et al. 2013).
Most of temperate water marine fish production in ocean locations is located in
Northern Europe (40%), followed by South America (27%); with Norway and
Chile dominating. Atlantic salmon is the dominant fish, with Norway the largest
190
J.S. Corbin et al.