constellation supports ten Ka-band steerable user antennas, two steerable gateway
antennas, and four optical inter-satellite links. Each of the user antennas provides a user
terminal data rate within the range of 50–1.6 Gbps. Two steerable gateway antennas
transmit at speeds up to 10 Gbps. The data rate of the optical inter-satellite links (ISLs)
is up to 1.6 Gbps and even 5.2 Gbps were needed [6].
2.3 OneWeb
OneWeb needs less than 600 satellites working at Ka (20/30 GHz) and Ku
(11/14 GHz) bands to provide global coverage Internet connection. These satellites will
first be launched into a 450–500 km altitude and then climb to an operational orbit of
1200 km from there. The satellites used in the OneWeb constellation have the following characteristics: small, modular design, high productivity, low cost, and strong
industry participation. The weight of a satellite is less than 150 kg.
The satellite production rate is about 40 satellites/month. OneWeb plans to start
launching from 2019 and launches every 21 days over two years across multiple sites
and brings truly global coverage in 2021. OneWeb was approved by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC), which means that its LEO satellites have successfully entered the US satellite market [7].
2.4 StarLink
Starlink is a large-scale constellation proposed by SpaceX. The FCC has given SpaceX
permission to launch two sets of satellites for Starlink: one set of 4409 satellites at the
height of 1150 km and another set of 7518 satellites at the height of 335–346 km.
SpaceX plans to offer speeds of 10 Gbps to every human on the planet and undercut
land-based networks [8]. The limited service will be started by as early as 2020 [9].
As a condition of approval, SpaceX needs to launch half of all those satellites, or
about 6000, within the next six years. Those 4409 satellites work at Ka and Ku band,
while other 7518 satellites work at V-band. After networking, two sets of satellites will
operate together to provide Internet access services for customers across the world.
As part of its efforts to prevent space debris, SpaceX later applied to deploy 1584 of
the set of 4409 satellites at 550 km orbit, rather than the previously claimed 1150 km
orbit. Space debris at low altitudes can quickly re-enter the atmosphere and disappear
automagically, because of low altitude atmospheric drag. SpaceX is designing a
satellite that will burn up completely when it re-enters the atmosphere, greatly
enhancing the space security [10, 11].
2.5 O3b
Due to economic and geographical constraints, there are still 3 billion people around
the world, mainly in Africa, Asia, and South America, who have no access to the
Internet now. O3b Networks Ltd., named after “the Other 3 Billion” and founded in
2007, is the operator of the O3b satellite constellation. It aims to provide low-latency,
high-bandwidth, and low-cost satellite Internet access to these 3 billion people in
remote parts of the world [12].
Recent Development of Commercial Satellite Communications Systems
533
antennas, and four optical inter-satellite links. Each of the user antennas provides a user
terminal data rate within the range of 50–1.6 Gbps. Two steerable gateway antennas
transmit at speeds up to 10 Gbps. The data rate of the optical inter-satellite links (ISLs)
is up to 1.6 Gbps and even 5.2 Gbps were needed [6].
2.3 OneWeb
OneWeb needs less than 600 satellites working at Ka (20/30 GHz) and Ku
(11/14 GHz) bands to provide global coverage Internet connection. These satellites will
first be launched into a 450–500 km altitude and then climb to an operational orbit of
1200 km from there. The satellites used in the OneWeb constellation have the following characteristics: small, modular design, high productivity, low cost, and strong
industry participation. The weight of a satellite is less than 150 kg.
The satellite production rate is about 40 satellites/month. OneWeb plans to start
launching from 2019 and launches every 21 days over two years across multiple sites
and brings truly global coverage in 2021. OneWeb was approved by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC), which means that its LEO satellites have successfully entered the US satellite market [7].
2.4 StarLink
Starlink is a large-scale constellation proposed by SpaceX. The FCC has given SpaceX
permission to launch two sets of satellites for Starlink: one set of 4409 satellites at the
height of 1150 km and another set of 7518 satellites at the height of 335–346 km.
SpaceX plans to offer speeds of 10 Gbps to every human on the planet and undercut
land-based networks [8]. The limited service will be started by as early as 2020 [9].
As a condition of approval, SpaceX needs to launch half of all those satellites, or
about 6000, within the next six years. Those 4409 satellites work at Ka and Ku band,
while other 7518 satellites work at V-band. After networking, two sets of satellites will
operate together to provide Internet access services for customers across the world.
As part of its efforts to prevent space debris, SpaceX later applied to deploy 1584 of
the set of 4409 satellites at 550 km orbit, rather than the previously claimed 1150 km
orbit. Space debris at low altitudes can quickly re-enter the atmosphere and disappear
automagically, because of low altitude atmospheric drag. SpaceX is designing a
satellite that will burn up completely when it re-enters the atmosphere, greatly
enhancing the space security [10, 11].
2.5 O3b
Due to economic and geographical constraints, there are still 3 billion people around
the world, mainly in Africa, Asia, and South America, who have no access to the
Internet now. O3b Networks Ltd., named after “the Other 3 Billion” and founded in
2007, is the operator of the O3b satellite constellation. It aims to provide low-latency,
high-bandwidth, and low-cost satellite Internet access to these 3 billion people in
remote parts of the world [12].
Recent Development of Commercial Satellite Communications Systems
533