24
Concerning science, the legend took the general form of attributing only a pedagogic value to the Jesuits’ scientific activity, describing it as mainly aimed at resisting any basic change of the Aristotelian-scholastic worldview. However, there was
also a different, if connected, agenda: namely, the marginalization of individual
Catholic countries (mainly those on the Iberian Peninsula and post-Galilean Italy)
from the “scientific revolution.” Owing to the prevailing role of the Jesuits in the
school systems of those countries, and to their (largely fictional) decisive influence
on the organs of the ecclesiastical censure, the “inquisitorial” explanation of that
marginalization, which has been nearly a standard among intellectual historians
until late twentieth century, has largely coincided with a denunciation of the Society.
On the present state of the debate, see Leitão (2003) and Saraiva (2008) for the situation in Portugal; Brotóns (2015) for the situation in Spain; and Baldini (1992) for
the situation in Italy.
2.2 Why Mathematics, and Specifically Astronomy?
The Society of Jesus was not founded to be a teaching order, much less one specializing in mathematics. It only gradually became committed to education due to a
series of unforeseen circumstances, beginning with the schools in Gandía, País
Valenciano (1545), and Messina, Sicily (1548). But soon after the Roman College
was founded, in 1551, mathematics was taught there, perhaps as early as 1553
(Lukács 1960, 1961; Romano 1999).
In the schools of the older religious orders, which were mainly set up to train
their own members, the official teaching of mathematics was rare. Therefore, its
inclusion in the curriculum of the Jesuits was a novelty. This occurred in part due to
the opening of the Jesuit schools to the public, which necessitated a nonreligious
dimension to the education they offered. But it also came out of the experience of
Ignatius and his companions at the University of Paris, which made them familiar
with a University curriculum that was different and broader than that of the schools
of the older religious orders.
It is useful to recall that from about the middle of the fourteenth century mathematics was taught at the university for two main reasons (Murdoch 1969). One was
to provide theological and medical students with an aid to understand Aristotle’s
cosmology; the other was to provide medical students with the elements of astrology as it was applied to medicine at that time. As for the schools of religious orders,
since Canon Law precluded clerics from studying and practicing medicine, philosophy was taught there mainly to prepare the students for theological studies. Thus,
until the late seventeenth century, mathematics was largely an instrument of astronomy (not to say astrology): Euclidean geometry—and some trigonometry—was the
means used to calculate celestial motions, while other parts of mathematics (mainly
algebra) were considered unnecessary.
With the birth of the teaching orders, starting with the Jesuits, philosophy courses
were also attended by many students who intended to study medicine later at the
U. Baldini
Concerning science, the legend took the general form of attributing only a pedagogic value to the Jesuits’ scientific activity, describing it as mainly aimed at resisting any basic change of the Aristotelian-scholastic worldview. However, there was
also a different, if connected, agenda: namely, the marginalization of individual
Catholic countries (mainly those on the Iberian Peninsula and post-Galilean Italy)
from the “scientific revolution.” Owing to the prevailing role of the Jesuits in the
school systems of those countries, and to their (largely fictional) decisive influence
on the organs of the ecclesiastical censure, the “inquisitorial” explanation of that
marginalization, which has been nearly a standard among intellectual historians
until late twentieth century, has largely coincided with a denunciation of the Society.
On the present state of the debate, see Leitão (2003) and Saraiva (2008) for the situation in Portugal; Brotóns (2015) for the situation in Spain; and Baldini (1992) for
the situation in Italy.
2.2 Why Mathematics, and Specifically Astronomy?
The Society of Jesus was not founded to be a teaching order, much less one specializing in mathematics. It only gradually became committed to education due to a
series of unforeseen circumstances, beginning with the schools in Gandía, País
Valenciano (1545), and Messina, Sicily (1548). But soon after the Roman College
was founded, in 1551, mathematics was taught there, perhaps as early as 1553
(Lukács 1960, 1961; Romano 1999).
In the schools of the older religious orders, which were mainly set up to train
their own members, the official teaching of mathematics was rare. Therefore, its
inclusion in the curriculum of the Jesuits was a novelty. This occurred in part due to
the opening of the Jesuit schools to the public, which necessitated a nonreligious
dimension to the education they offered. But it also came out of the experience of
Ignatius and his companions at the University of Paris, which made them familiar
with a University curriculum that was different and broader than that of the schools
of the older religious orders.
It is useful to recall that from about the middle of the fourteenth century mathematics was taught at the university for two main reasons (Murdoch 1969). One was
to provide theological and medical students with an aid to understand Aristotle’s
cosmology; the other was to provide medical students with the elements of astrology as it was applied to medicine at that time. As for the schools of religious orders,
since Canon Law precluded clerics from studying and practicing medicine, philosophy was taught there mainly to prepare the students for theological studies. Thus,
until the late seventeenth century, mathematics was largely an instrument of astronomy (not to say astrology): Euclidean geometry—and some trigonometry—was the
means used to calculate celestial motions, while other parts of mathematics (mainly
algebra) were considered unnecessary.
With the birth of the teaching orders, starting with the Jesuits, philosophy courses
were also attended by many students who intended to study medicine later at the
U. Baldini