Tensions and contradictions
Across these cases, then, green transformations are emerging from diverse spaces,
grounded in citizen concerns and mobilization but involving diverse political
strategies. In some cases spaces have been opened up by direct protest and lobbying.
This has often been complemented by increasingly sophisticated media, and
particularly new social media, and activism. Political cycles have an important effect
in some places, as green agendas rise and fall with political parties sometimes linking
their agenda to green issues, and social movements pushing them to comply. The
law and regulatory institutions have been important sites for debate about green
transformations in certain places where opportunities for legal activism are present.
In other instances changes in behaviours and practices have become embedded in
either explicitly ‘alternative’ activities or through quieter, less explicit but often
large-scale shifts in practice. Some such changes may be facilitated and encouraged
by sites of experimentation and demonstration organized by movements (perhaps
identified as ‘niches’) explicitly to show and share alternatives, or alternatively as
part of local practices that others observe, copy and share in a much more informal
way. Whatever combinations of tactics, strategies are used which will depend,
as the cases show, on the social, political, cultural and economic context. There
is no standard script for green mobilizations and there is enormous diversity, much
of it hidden from view, as we have noted.
In effecting often radical change that challenges incumbent institutions and
confronts powerful interests, there are no easy or predictable forms of mobilization.
Each must be attuned to the circumstance and moment. Inevitably there are often
intense debates, within and between movements, about what is the best approach.
Multiple tensions and sometimes deep contradictions exist, as hinted at in some
of the cases discussed earlier. Debates around framing are often significant: What
is green? What is agroecological farming? What is appropriate technology? These
are not easy to resolve and, depending on one’s position, class, identity, location
and aspiration, the answers may be quite different. As discussed earlier, drawing
different people from diverse backgrounds into a movement may be challenging.
Networks may be quite fragile in some instances, held together by a common
opposition to a loosely defined enemy, but with real differences in outlook and
perspective among participants. This often becomes especially apparent when
identities and identifications clash: between being an environmentalist, a feminist
and indigenous person, for example. While multiple subject positions, and associated
frames and stances may be able to be held together, this may be more challenging
when tensions over strategy and tactics arise.
Within the environment movement more generally, tensions have often arisen
when once loose, fragmented activities as part of movements and networks become
institutionalized and ‘mainstreamed’. Contradictions then often arise between the
radical foundations of a movement and reformist green agendas that see success
being generated through collaboration with governments, businesses and others,
as space is opened up by environmental awareness and activism. New frames are
130 Melissa Leach and Ian Scoones
Across these cases, then, green transformations are emerging from diverse spaces,
grounded in citizen concerns and mobilization but involving diverse political
strategies. In some cases spaces have been opened up by direct protest and lobbying.
This has often been complemented by increasingly sophisticated media, and
particularly new social media, and activism. Political cycles have an important effect
in some places, as green agendas rise and fall with political parties sometimes linking
their agenda to green issues, and social movements pushing them to comply. The
law and regulatory institutions have been important sites for debate about green
transformations in certain places where opportunities for legal activism are present.
In other instances changes in behaviours and practices have become embedded in
either explicitly ‘alternative’ activities or through quieter, less explicit but often
large-scale shifts in practice. Some such changes may be facilitated and encouraged
by sites of experimentation and demonstration organized by movements (perhaps
identified as ‘niches’) explicitly to show and share alternatives, or alternatively as
part of local practices that others observe, copy and share in a much more informal
way. Whatever combinations of tactics, strategies are used which will depend,
as the cases show, on the social, political, cultural and economic context. There
is no standard script for green mobilizations and there is enormous diversity, much
of it hidden from view, as we have noted.
In effecting often radical change that challenges incumbent institutions and
confronts powerful interests, there are no easy or predictable forms of mobilization.
Each must be attuned to the circumstance and moment. Inevitably there are often
intense debates, within and between movements, about what is the best approach.
Multiple tensions and sometimes deep contradictions exist, as hinted at in some
of the cases discussed earlier. Debates around framing are often significant: What
is green? What is agroecological farming? What is appropriate technology? These
are not easy to resolve and, depending on one’s position, class, identity, location
and aspiration, the answers may be quite different. As discussed earlier, drawing
different people from diverse backgrounds into a movement may be challenging.
Networks may be quite fragile in some instances, held together by a common
opposition to a loosely defined enemy, but with real differences in outlook and
perspective among participants. This often becomes especially apparent when
identities and identifications clash: between being an environmentalist, a feminist
and indigenous person, for example. While multiple subject positions, and associated
frames and stances may be able to be held together, this may be more challenging
when tensions over strategy and tactics arise.
Within the environment movement more generally, tensions have often arisen
when once loose, fragmented activities as part of movements and networks become
institutionalized and ‘mainstreamed’. Contradictions then often arise between the
radical foundations of a movement and reformist green agendas that see success
being generated through collaboration with governments, businesses and others,
as space is opened up by environmental awareness and activism. New frames are
130 Melissa Leach and Ian Scoones