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8 Modern Weapons: Possibilities and Limitations
of bellows and terracotta pipes. The toxic gases caused the attackers to suffocate and
even die.
During classical times, there were also attempts to use chemical agents (CA)
during military operations. It is known that toxic fumes were used in the times of the
Peloponnesian war in 431–404 BC. The Spartans put tar and sulfur in logs, which
were then placed under the city walls and set on fire.
Later, with the emergence of gunpowder, there were attempts to use bombs filled
with the mixture of poison, gunpowder, and tar in the battlefield. Released from the
catapults, they exploded with the help of a burning fuse (prototype of the modern
remote fuse). The exploding bombs produced clouds of toxic smoke over enemy
troops; the gases caused nasal bleeding in case of using arsenic, skin irritation, and
blisters.
A bomb made of cardboard and filled with sulfur and lime was created in medieval
China. During a sea battle in 1161, these bombs were falling into the water and
exploding with a thunderous sound, releasing toxic smoke into the atmosphere. The
smoke formed as a result of contact of water with lime and sulfur caused the same
effect as the modern tear gas.
The following substances were used as components in creating mixtures for
charging of bombs: pepper plant, croton oil, soap tree pods (to produce smoke),
arsenic sulfide and oxide, aconite, tung oil, Spanish flies.
In the early sixteenth century, citizens of Brazil tried to combat conquistadors with
the help of toxic smoke produced during combustion of red pepper. This method was
subsequently used several times during rebellions in Latin America.
During the Middle Ages and later, chemical means continued to draw attention for
the purpose of solving military tasks. For example, in 1456, the city of Belgrad was
protected from the Turks with the help of the effect of a toxic cloud on the attackers.
This cloud emerged as a result of combustion of the toxic dust, which the citizens
used to cover rats with, after which they set the rats on fire and unleashed them on
their attackers.
An entire range of compounds, including arsenic-based compounds and saliva of
mad dogs, was described by Leonardo da Vinci.
During World War II, huge volumes of chemical agents were used—about 400
thousand tons of troops were affected by 12 thousand tons of the mustard gas. In total,
180 thousand tons of various types of ammunition were filled with toxic substances
during the years of the First World War, of which 125 thousand tons were used on
the battlefield. Over 40 types of CA passed military tests. Total number of victims
of chemical weapons is estimated as 1.3 million people.
The initiative to use combat chemical agents on a large scale in the nineteenth
century belongs to Germany. As early as during the battles in September 1914 on
the River Marne and on the River Ain, both sides experienced great difficulties in
supplying ammunition to their armies. After transition to position war in October–
November, there was no hope, especially for Germany, to defeat the enemy protected
by deep trenches with the help of conventional artillery projectiles. CA, in their turn,
have the ability to affect manpower in places inaccessible even to the most powerful
8 Modern Weapons: Possibilities and Limitations
of bellows and terracotta pipes. The toxic gases caused the attackers to suffocate and
even die.
During classical times, there were also attempts to use chemical agents (CA)
during military operations. It is known that toxic fumes were used in the times of the
Peloponnesian war in 431–404 BC. The Spartans put tar and sulfur in logs, which
were then placed under the city walls and set on fire.
Later, with the emergence of gunpowder, there were attempts to use bombs filled
with the mixture of poison, gunpowder, and tar in the battlefield. Released from the
catapults, they exploded with the help of a burning fuse (prototype of the modern
remote fuse). The exploding bombs produced clouds of toxic smoke over enemy
troops; the gases caused nasal bleeding in case of using arsenic, skin irritation, and
blisters.
A bomb made of cardboard and filled with sulfur and lime was created in medieval
China. During a sea battle in 1161, these bombs were falling into the water and
exploding with a thunderous sound, releasing toxic smoke into the atmosphere. The
smoke formed as a result of contact of water with lime and sulfur caused the same
effect as the modern tear gas.
The following substances were used as components in creating mixtures for
charging of bombs: pepper plant, croton oil, soap tree pods (to produce smoke),
arsenic sulfide and oxide, aconite, tung oil, Spanish flies.
In the early sixteenth century, citizens of Brazil tried to combat conquistadors with
the help of toxic smoke produced during combustion of red pepper. This method was
subsequently used several times during rebellions in Latin America.
During the Middle Ages and later, chemical means continued to draw attention for
the purpose of solving military tasks. For example, in 1456, the city of Belgrad was
protected from the Turks with the help of the effect of a toxic cloud on the attackers.
This cloud emerged as a result of combustion of the toxic dust, which the citizens
used to cover rats with, after which they set the rats on fire and unleashed them on
their attackers.
An entire range of compounds, including arsenic-based compounds and saliva of
mad dogs, was described by Leonardo da Vinci.
During World War II, huge volumes of chemical agents were used—about 400
thousand tons of troops were affected by 12 thousand tons of the mustard gas. In total,
180 thousand tons of various types of ammunition were filled with toxic substances
during the years of the First World War, of which 125 thousand tons were used on
the battlefield. Over 40 types of CA passed military tests. Total number of victims
of chemical weapons is estimated as 1.3 million people.
The initiative to use combat chemical agents on a large scale in the nineteenth
century belongs to Germany. As early as during the battles in September 1914 on
the River Marne and on the River Ain, both sides experienced great difficulties in
supplying ammunition to their armies. After transition to position war in October–
November, there was no hope, especially for Germany, to defeat the enemy protected
by deep trenches with the help of conventional artillery projectiles. CA, in their turn,
have the ability to affect manpower in places inaccessible even to the most powerful