and ecological-geological-oceanographical processes and currently are an important
central axis of marine conservation efforts (Kelleher 1999; Kuempel et al. 2019).
The benefits of establishing well-designed and enforced fully protected MPAs are
well-documented (Giakoumi et al. 2018). Scientific evidence indicates that MPAs
can produce ecological, economic and social benefits under appropriate design and
management conditions (Ban et al. 2012, 2017).
According to the IUCN (2016), Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) are sites that
contribute significantly to the global persistence of biodiversity. The identification of
a site as a KBA simply implies that the site should be managed in ways that ensure
the persistence of the biodiversity elements for which it was considered important.
Nevertheless, some KBAs may sometimes not have in itself any character of
protection. In this sense, several KBAs can also overlap wholly or partly with
existing MPAs, including sites designated under international, national and local
levels. Thereby, it is expected that some MPAs overlap with KBAs; however, this is
not always the case, because MPAs are sometimes established locally by different
criteria and opportunities. IUCN (2016) established global standard criteria for the
identification of KBAs worldwide. The main criteria are based on the presence of
threatened species/habitats for which site-scale conservation is appropriate, including the importance of such site in the biology, ecology and preservation of these
species and habitats (Butchart et al. 2012; IUCN 2016). Other criteria are that the
KBA can host a significant number of endemic/rare species and/or has a highly
pristine status. Therefore, MPAs and KBAs designation are useful steps for conservation of global biodiversity, for identification of key sites for elements of biodiversity and for provision of resources to decision-makers that are essential for guiding
decisions on the conservation and sustainable management of a particular region.
25.1.1 International Agreements for Marine and Coastal
Conservation of the Alboran Sea
MPAs and KBAs have been identified as potentially multifunctional areas which could
provide ecosystem and socio-economic services useful for conservation management
in the Alboran Sea (Robles 2010; IUCN 2012a). These MPAs and KBAs (without
IMMAS) cover ca. 7% of the world’s ocean (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017),
whereas in the Alboran Sea, these areas represent ca. 10%. The political scenario of
the Alboran Sea region is characterized by a clear division between the north and south
sectors, and national interests predominate both north and south in terms of the
maritime map, with a resulting mosaic of jurisdictions that facilitates neither bilateral
nor multilateral agreements (Talamo and Riera 2019). The north-south asymmetry of
the Alboran Sea can also be seen in the existence of two distinct and greatly differing
socio-economic and cultural models. The north has high or very high human development indicators, whereas the south has average human development indicators.
International agreements have been helpful in the designation of some of the
MPAs and KBAs of the Alboran Sea. Some of the most widely known KBAs
focussing on vertebrates are the Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs)
25 Marine Protected Areas and Key Biodiversity Areas of the Alboran Sea and. . .
821
central axis of marine conservation efforts (Kelleher 1999; Kuempel et al. 2019).
The benefits of establishing well-designed and enforced fully protected MPAs are
well-documented (Giakoumi et al. 2018). Scientific evidence indicates that MPAs
can produce ecological, economic and social benefits under appropriate design and
management conditions (Ban et al. 2012, 2017).
According to the IUCN (2016), Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) are sites that
contribute significantly to the global persistence of biodiversity. The identification of
a site as a KBA simply implies that the site should be managed in ways that ensure
the persistence of the biodiversity elements for which it was considered important.
Nevertheless, some KBAs may sometimes not have in itself any character of
protection. In this sense, several KBAs can also overlap wholly or partly with
existing MPAs, including sites designated under international, national and local
levels. Thereby, it is expected that some MPAs overlap with KBAs; however, this is
not always the case, because MPAs are sometimes established locally by different
criteria and opportunities. IUCN (2016) established global standard criteria for the
identification of KBAs worldwide. The main criteria are based on the presence of
threatened species/habitats for which site-scale conservation is appropriate, including the importance of such site in the biology, ecology and preservation of these
species and habitats (Butchart et al. 2012; IUCN 2016). Other criteria are that the
KBA can host a significant number of endemic/rare species and/or has a highly
pristine status. Therefore, MPAs and KBAs designation are useful steps for conservation of global biodiversity, for identification of key sites for elements of biodiversity and for provision of resources to decision-makers that are essential for guiding
decisions on the conservation and sustainable management of a particular region.
25.1.1 International Agreements for Marine and Coastal
Conservation of the Alboran Sea
MPAs and KBAs have been identified as potentially multifunctional areas which could
provide ecosystem and socio-economic services useful for conservation management
in the Alboran Sea (Robles 2010; IUCN 2012a). These MPAs and KBAs (without
IMMAS) cover ca. 7% of the world’s ocean (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2017),
whereas in the Alboran Sea, these areas represent ca. 10%. The political scenario of
the Alboran Sea region is characterized by a clear division between the north and south
sectors, and national interests predominate both north and south in terms of the
maritime map, with a resulting mosaic of jurisdictions that facilitates neither bilateral
nor multilateral agreements (Talamo and Riera 2019). The north-south asymmetry of
the Alboran Sea can also be seen in the existence of two distinct and greatly differing
socio-economic and cultural models. The north has high or very high human development indicators, whereas the south has average human development indicators.
International agreements have been helpful in the designation of some of the
MPAs and KBAs of the Alboran Sea. Some of the most widely known KBAs
focussing on vertebrates are the Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs)
25 Marine Protected Areas and Key Biodiversity Areas of the Alboran Sea and. . .
821