extensive correspondence network, knowledge was distributed and discussed
(Rusnock 1999). The Royal Society took its philosophy from Francis Bacon. Natural
sciences arose through cooperation between researchers. Science was an instrument
to understand and influence the conditions on earth. The purpose was to control the
nature for the benefit of humans (Heidelberger 1985). Thus, the focus was utility and
practical knowledge (Purver 1967), to improve the technical efficiency of individual
industries and to create technical and practical inventions. Therefore, it is not
surprising that industrialisation started in England (Kearney 1971). During the
eighteenth century, “the Society developed as a legitimating body—a sort of review
board—for scientific reports” (Rusnock 1999, p. 156).
In 1666, 6 years after the foundation of the Royal Society, King Louis XIV
founded the Académie des Sciences in Paris, a state institution. The state invested
not only in research but also paid salaries for the members of the institution. The
focus of this society was a very different one than that of the Royal Society. Scholars
could satisfy their intellectual curiosity. Thus, scholars researched in the six main
scientific subjects recognized in the eighteenth century: mathematics, physics,
mechanics, astronomy, chemistry, botany and anatomy (Crosland 1992; Hahn
1971). However, if they wanted to share their knowledge, each article had to get
the approval of the Academy before being published in the Academy’s Journal des
Savants (Hahn 1971).
Still, until the nineteenth century, there was no natural science faculty at the
universities. Scientific knowledge belonged to the general knowledge of every
student. It had to be acquired as part of the basic studies (bachelor’s degree) and
the subsequent philosophy study (master’s degree). Only after that, a student began
his actual specialist studies: theology, legal studies or medicine (Thiessen 1985).
2.7 The Roots of Modern Environmental Education
During the nineteenth century, several environment related movements developed
worldwide, like the conservation movement, the environmental movement, outdoor
education and nature study. Harvey (1976) already mentioned that the environmental
movements probably comprised different groups, individuals and interests, which
only superficially integrated same ideas. This statement can probably be applied to
each of the movements. Still the terms education and environment were not brought
together until the mid-1960s.
Psychological, philosophical, and ecological/biogeographical roots of these
movements, as well as of environmental education (EE), can be traced back to the
eighteenth century. Palmer (1998) states that the development of EE was significantly influenced by “some of the ‘great’ eighteenth- and nineteenth-century
thinkers, writers and educators, notably Goethe, Rousseau, Humboldt, Haeckel,
Froebel, Dewey and Montessori” (Palmer 1998, p. 4). These authors started to
spur concern about the environment as well as environmental problems. They raised
the reader’s awareness and knowledge about nature and environment and focused
56
C. Börtitz and C. Hobohm
(Rusnock 1999). The Royal Society took its philosophy from Francis Bacon. Natural
sciences arose through cooperation between researchers. Science was an instrument
to understand and influence the conditions on earth. The purpose was to control the
nature for the benefit of humans (Heidelberger 1985). Thus, the focus was utility and
practical knowledge (Purver 1967), to improve the technical efficiency of individual
industries and to create technical and practical inventions. Therefore, it is not
surprising that industrialisation started in England (Kearney 1971). During the
eighteenth century, “the Society developed as a legitimating body—a sort of review
board—for scientific reports” (Rusnock 1999, p. 156).
In 1666, 6 years after the foundation of the Royal Society, King Louis XIV
founded the Académie des Sciences in Paris, a state institution. The state invested
not only in research but also paid salaries for the members of the institution. The
focus of this society was a very different one than that of the Royal Society. Scholars
could satisfy their intellectual curiosity. Thus, scholars researched in the six main
scientific subjects recognized in the eighteenth century: mathematics, physics,
mechanics, astronomy, chemistry, botany and anatomy (Crosland 1992; Hahn
1971). However, if they wanted to share their knowledge, each article had to get
the approval of the Academy before being published in the Academy’s Journal des
Savants (Hahn 1971).
Still, until the nineteenth century, there was no natural science faculty at the
universities. Scientific knowledge belonged to the general knowledge of every
student. It had to be acquired as part of the basic studies (bachelor’s degree) and
the subsequent philosophy study (master’s degree). Only after that, a student began
his actual specialist studies: theology, legal studies or medicine (Thiessen 1985).
2.7 The Roots of Modern Environmental Education
During the nineteenth century, several environment related movements developed
worldwide, like the conservation movement, the environmental movement, outdoor
education and nature study. Harvey (1976) already mentioned that the environmental
movements probably comprised different groups, individuals and interests, which
only superficially integrated same ideas. This statement can probably be applied to
each of the movements. Still the terms education and environment were not brought
together until the mid-1960s.
Psychological, philosophical, and ecological/biogeographical roots of these
movements, as well as of environmental education (EE), can be traced back to the
eighteenth century. Palmer (1998) states that the development of EE was significantly influenced by “some of the ‘great’ eighteenth- and nineteenth-century
thinkers, writers and educators, notably Goethe, Rousseau, Humboldt, Haeckel,
Froebel, Dewey and Montessori” (Palmer 1998, p. 4). These authors started to
spur concern about the environment as well as environmental problems. They raised
the reader’s awareness and knowledge about nature and environment and focused
56
C. Börtitz and C. Hobohm