transported from devastated mountains to the lowlands where they destroyed large
parts of farmland in the floodplains (Fumagalli 1992).
In northern Germany open sand dunes originated and expanded (Schubert 1996).
Devastated landscapes, natural disasters and a growing population resulted in epidemics and famines (Dirlmeier 1996). People had to realize that the transformation
of natural conditions and maximal exploitation is one possibility but to mitigate its
negative influences they had to seek out technological solutions. The
overexploitation forced the beginning of forest protection.
First reforestation projects were initiated by monasteries. Forests were protected
for various reasons, inter alia for hunting, woodland pastoralism and limited timber
production. From the fourteenth century onwards, cities prevented overexploitation
of their urban forests via protection measures due to their dependence on wood.
Measures were, inter alia, the restricted use of commons and reforestation
(Fumagalli 1992; Schubert 1996).
At the end of the Middle Ages, cities normally had a public school where cleric
men taught. However, there was not much left of the ancient education, due to the
decreasing knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages as well as catastrophes and
accidents which destroyed many ancient writings irretrievably. Much knowledge
was lost. In the year 800 AD, Charles the Great carried out an educational reform
with the aim to raise the educational standard. In order to achieve this, the basic
training of priests was improved and bishops’ schools were founded. Monastery
schools and priest education were organized at three levels:
1. elementary knowledge including reading, writing, singing, mathematics, calendar
studies,
2. the “septem artes liberals” including grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic,
geometry, astronomy, music,
3. and the priestly vocational training including reading and interpreting of holy
scriptures, sermon, divine service, teaching of the doctrine of faith (Piltz 1982).
During the second half of the Middle Ages, after 1100, secularization took more
and more place. Students stated to ask rational questions and tried to get more
convincing answers. However, cleric men still taught in schools and universities
(Piltz 1982; Röckelein 2015). These cleric men were at the same time clergyman and
scholars, even thou they did not necessarily belonged to the monks and priests
(Le Goff 1994).
During the eleventh century, first universities were founded, even if the name
university was established not before the fifteenth century. Until then it was called
“stúdium generále” (Piltz 1982). The oldest universities are Paris, Oxford and
Bologna (Heidelberger 1985). The Arts Faculty curriculum in Paris included subjects such as philosophy of antiquity, rhetoric, grammar, quadrivium, and ethics.
However, the natural philosophy and the metaphysics of Aristotle were prohibited.
This was a peculiarity of Paris, existing only until 1366. Toulouse and Oxford,
which competed with Paris as sites of philosophical scholarship, were not affected
by the ban (Piltz 1982). Four faculties were established: Liberal Arts, Law, Medicine, and Theology. Next to being colleges, the medieval universities partly included
History of Environmental Communication and Education
53
parts of farmland in the floodplains (Fumagalli 1992).
In northern Germany open sand dunes originated and expanded (Schubert 1996).
Devastated landscapes, natural disasters and a growing population resulted in epidemics and famines (Dirlmeier 1996). People had to realize that the transformation
of natural conditions and maximal exploitation is one possibility but to mitigate its
negative influences they had to seek out technological solutions. The
overexploitation forced the beginning of forest protection.
First reforestation projects were initiated by monasteries. Forests were protected
for various reasons, inter alia for hunting, woodland pastoralism and limited timber
production. From the fourteenth century onwards, cities prevented overexploitation
of their urban forests via protection measures due to their dependence on wood.
Measures were, inter alia, the restricted use of commons and reforestation
(Fumagalli 1992; Schubert 1996).
At the end of the Middle Ages, cities normally had a public school where cleric
men taught. However, there was not much left of the ancient education, due to the
decreasing knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages as well as catastrophes and
accidents which destroyed many ancient writings irretrievably. Much knowledge
was lost. In the year 800 AD, Charles the Great carried out an educational reform
with the aim to raise the educational standard. In order to achieve this, the basic
training of priests was improved and bishops’ schools were founded. Monastery
schools and priest education were organized at three levels:
1. elementary knowledge including reading, writing, singing, mathematics, calendar
studies,
2. the “septem artes liberals” including grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic,
geometry, astronomy, music,
3. and the priestly vocational training including reading and interpreting of holy
scriptures, sermon, divine service, teaching of the doctrine of faith (Piltz 1982).
During the second half of the Middle Ages, after 1100, secularization took more
and more place. Students stated to ask rational questions and tried to get more
convincing answers. However, cleric men still taught in schools and universities
(Piltz 1982; Röckelein 2015). These cleric men were at the same time clergyman and
scholars, even thou they did not necessarily belonged to the monks and priests
(Le Goff 1994).
During the eleventh century, first universities were founded, even if the name
university was established not before the fifteenth century. Until then it was called
“stúdium generále” (Piltz 1982). The oldest universities are Paris, Oxford and
Bologna (Heidelberger 1985). The Arts Faculty curriculum in Paris included subjects such as philosophy of antiquity, rhetoric, grammar, quadrivium, and ethics.
However, the natural philosophy and the metaphysics of Aristotle were prohibited.
This was a peculiarity of Paris, existing only until 1366. Toulouse and Oxford,
which competed with Paris as sites of philosophical scholarship, were not affected
by the ban (Piltz 1982). Four faculties were established: Liberal Arts, Law, Medicine, and Theology. Next to being colleges, the medieval universities partly included
History of Environmental Communication and Education
53