Lykeion, in Athens in 355 BC, he taught the later Alexander the Great, son of King
Philip II of Macedonia. Aristoteles’ works show what Greek philosophers knew and
thought about natural sciences. He summed up the entire knowledge of his time
about nature and integrated his own observations and evaluations (Breidbach 2015;
Mägdefrau 1992). Inter alia, Aristotle wrote the “Historia animalium”, in which he
developed the first systematic of the animal kingdom. This system remained valid
until modern times. One of his students, Theophrastus (371–287 BC), carried out
basic botanical research, researching the plant itself and its benefits for agriculture
and medicine (Flad-Schnorrenberg 1978).
The Gymnasion (gymnasium) was the central institution for education of Greek
knowledge and culture. It was a spacious complex of multifunctional buildings with
walkways, sport complexes and a park in which a wide range of teaching and
instruction was offered. Sometimes an archive, a library and in some cases thermal
baths were included (Breidbach 2015; Kah and Scholz 2007). The Gymnasion was
no state educational institution of modern character providing public teaching staff
and general curricula. It was an institution of general education and urban leisure for
young and adult. The access was restricted to sons of free Greek citizens between the
ages 7 and 30, if the father could afford the attendance fee. Consequently, it was only
accessible for people of the upper class. The Gymnasion provided elementary and
intellectual education such as cultural techniques of reading, writing and arithmetic,
arts and crafts, rhetoric and philosophy, body hygiene and physical education as well
as instruction in war crafts and military training. Lectures and courses by scholars
and lectures about local cults and ceremonies were also part of the education
programmes (Kah and Scholz 2007).
In the Roman Empire, no explicit educational centres existed. In households of
higher social position house slaves, mostly enslaved Greek scholars, taught children
reading and writing. The Roman youth was trained by the military, not at grammar
schools or academies. In addition to the military training, educated Romans often
went on study trips to Greece or Asia Minor. Thus, education and training were more
practice- than theory/philosophy-oriented. Philosophers were rather insignificant.
Knowledge of that time was handed down in architecture and less in writings
(Breidbach 2015; Sonnabend 2006). One example is the Roman water system. To
improve health conditions public health facilities, like latrines and public baths, were
accessible even for the poorest citizens. Romans observed that surface water could
be used for many activities, like flushing latrines. By contrast, the higher quality of
spring water makes it more suitable for human consumption. “Inventors of the first
integrated water service, the Romans managed the water cycle from collection to
disposal, providing dual networks to collect spring water and dispose of storm and
wastewater” (Lofrano and Brown 2010, p. 5257). Prior to the construction of
aqueducts, Romans built sewers. For example, the Cloaca Maxima already existed
in the sixth century BC. The first aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, was only built in
312 BC (Lofrano and Brown 2010). At the end, 11 aqueducts carried water to Rome
(Sonnabend 2006). Nature was dominated and handled practically. Another example
are Roman transport routes, which were chosen for practical reasons. This required a
complex knowledge about nature, inter alia, distances, regional climates and their
History of Environmental Communication and Education
51
Philip II of Macedonia. Aristoteles’ works show what Greek philosophers knew and
thought about natural sciences. He summed up the entire knowledge of his time
about nature and integrated his own observations and evaluations (Breidbach 2015;
Mägdefrau 1992). Inter alia, Aristotle wrote the “Historia animalium”, in which he
developed the first systematic of the animal kingdom. This system remained valid
until modern times. One of his students, Theophrastus (371–287 BC), carried out
basic botanical research, researching the plant itself and its benefits for agriculture
and medicine (Flad-Schnorrenberg 1978).
The Gymnasion (gymnasium) was the central institution for education of Greek
knowledge and culture. It was a spacious complex of multifunctional buildings with
walkways, sport complexes and a park in which a wide range of teaching and
instruction was offered. Sometimes an archive, a library and in some cases thermal
baths were included (Breidbach 2015; Kah and Scholz 2007). The Gymnasion was
no state educational institution of modern character providing public teaching staff
and general curricula. It was an institution of general education and urban leisure for
young and adult. The access was restricted to sons of free Greek citizens between the
ages 7 and 30, if the father could afford the attendance fee. Consequently, it was only
accessible for people of the upper class. The Gymnasion provided elementary and
intellectual education such as cultural techniques of reading, writing and arithmetic,
arts and crafts, rhetoric and philosophy, body hygiene and physical education as well
as instruction in war crafts and military training. Lectures and courses by scholars
and lectures about local cults and ceremonies were also part of the education
programmes (Kah and Scholz 2007).
In the Roman Empire, no explicit educational centres existed. In households of
higher social position house slaves, mostly enslaved Greek scholars, taught children
reading and writing. The Roman youth was trained by the military, not at grammar
schools or academies. In addition to the military training, educated Romans often
went on study trips to Greece or Asia Minor. Thus, education and training were more
practice- than theory/philosophy-oriented. Philosophers were rather insignificant.
Knowledge of that time was handed down in architecture and less in writings
(Breidbach 2015; Sonnabend 2006). One example is the Roman water system. To
improve health conditions public health facilities, like latrines and public baths, were
accessible even for the poorest citizens. Romans observed that surface water could
be used for many activities, like flushing latrines. By contrast, the higher quality of
spring water makes it more suitable for human consumption. “Inventors of the first
integrated water service, the Romans managed the water cycle from collection to
disposal, providing dual networks to collect spring water and dispose of storm and
wastewater” (Lofrano and Brown 2010, p. 5257). Prior to the construction of
aqueducts, Romans built sewers. For example, the Cloaca Maxima already existed
in the sixth century BC. The first aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, was only built in
312 BC (Lofrano and Brown 2010). At the end, 11 aqueducts carried water to Rome
(Sonnabend 2006). Nature was dominated and handled practically. Another example
are Roman transport routes, which were chosen for practical reasons. This required a
complex knowledge about nature, inter alia, distances, regional climates and their
History of Environmental Communication and Education
51