If one takes an evolutionary or biophysical point of view, there is no reason to
assume that humans are something special and outside of the general framework of
ecosystems and ecological conditions.
However, in contrast to other species, Homo sapiens is a strong engineer of most,
if not all, ecosystems. Human need of, hunger for, and use of resources is extreme
and increasing. Humans can drastically manipulate the populations of individual
species (e.g. whales), with seemingly small effects on overall marine ecosystem
stability. But, humans can also alter ecosystem structures and functions by using
technologies and chemical substances that impact thousands of species and simultaneously threaten many with extinction.
An open question is if and how a growing human population can find a way to
ensure the survival of ecosystems and biota into the future. Recent trends show a
growing use of abiotic and biotic resources, including energy, food and materials.
We assume that a growing population of humans will continue to increase the overall
demand for such resources. However, humans should not extract these all from all
ecosystems with increasing intensity. It always has been—and can be increasingly
possible—to also produce and harvest resources from artificial and semi-natural
systems. Growing cities and urban habitats can be identified as regions with huge
potential for resource production and recycling. On the other hand, it is certainly
possible to lower the pressure on the environment and natural resources in certain
habitat types and nature reserves.
It is clearly both expensive and impractical to produce single-use, non-recycable
material for human benefit; these products, whether plastic, fertilizers or medicine,
go on to pollute other ecosystems with major hidden costs. Thus, we advocate for the
position that resources should be used more strategically, and, following such
strategies, that the exploitation of ecosystems and species will be reduced to a
minimum in terms of wastage and excess.
Climate change, rampant alien invasive species, and species extinction are but
symptoms of increasing resource use and greater globalisation. However, in contrast
to climate change and the occurrence of alien invasive species, species extinction is
irreversible. Furthermore, declining species richness might have dramatic impacts
not only for ecosystems but also for social and cultural processes; this is because
species play important functional roles in food webs, cycling of energy and nutrients,
and ecosystem services.
4.2 Environmental Value Schemes
On conceptual grounds, environmentalism, sustainability science, protection of
biodiversity, restoration ecology, and environmental education all rest on values
being attributed to natural entities such as species, ecosystems, landscapes. All
assumptions about protective goods rely on value judgements. In general, ethics
reflects upon both values and commitments (rules, obligations). Values are about
goodness (axiology), while rules are about rightness (deontology). Environmental
462
C. Hobohm et al.
assume that humans are something special and outside of the general framework of
ecosystems and ecological conditions.
However, in contrast to other species, Homo sapiens is a strong engineer of most,
if not all, ecosystems. Human need of, hunger for, and use of resources is extreme
and increasing. Humans can drastically manipulate the populations of individual
species (e.g. whales), with seemingly small effects on overall marine ecosystem
stability. But, humans can also alter ecosystem structures and functions by using
technologies and chemical substances that impact thousands of species and simultaneously threaten many with extinction.
An open question is if and how a growing human population can find a way to
ensure the survival of ecosystems and biota into the future. Recent trends show a
growing use of abiotic and biotic resources, including energy, food and materials.
We assume that a growing population of humans will continue to increase the overall
demand for such resources. However, humans should not extract these all from all
ecosystems with increasing intensity. It always has been—and can be increasingly
possible—to also produce and harvest resources from artificial and semi-natural
systems. Growing cities and urban habitats can be identified as regions with huge
potential for resource production and recycling. On the other hand, it is certainly
possible to lower the pressure on the environment and natural resources in certain
habitat types and nature reserves.
It is clearly both expensive and impractical to produce single-use, non-recycable
material for human benefit; these products, whether plastic, fertilizers or medicine,
go on to pollute other ecosystems with major hidden costs. Thus, we advocate for the
position that resources should be used more strategically, and, following such
strategies, that the exploitation of ecosystems and species will be reduced to a
minimum in terms of wastage and excess.
Climate change, rampant alien invasive species, and species extinction are but
symptoms of increasing resource use and greater globalisation. However, in contrast
to climate change and the occurrence of alien invasive species, species extinction is
irreversible. Furthermore, declining species richness might have dramatic impacts
not only for ecosystems but also for social and cultural processes; this is because
species play important functional roles in food webs, cycling of energy and nutrients,
and ecosystem services.
4.2 Environmental Value Schemes
On conceptual grounds, environmentalism, sustainability science, protection of
biodiversity, restoration ecology, and environmental education all rest on values
being attributed to natural entities such as species, ecosystems, landscapes. All
assumptions about protective goods rely on value judgements. In general, ethics
reflects upon both values and commitments (rules, obligations). Values are about
goodness (axiology), while rules are about rightness (deontology). Environmental
462
C. Hobohm et al.