of rare and endangered native plants grow there. City people can experience daily
contact with the native flora.
A special form of the wildlife garden is the plant sociological garden which arose
in Bremen and Hannover in Germany and later in Nijmegen in The Netherlands
(Tüxen 1947; Westhoff 1954, 1971). Perhaps the most consistent one was the garden
in Hannover, which aimed to bring together a large number of vegetation types that
occur in the wider region. Unfortunately the garden in Hannover has ceased to exist,
but the garden in Nijmegen still exists, albeit in a reduced state. The model is
interesting, as plant sociology (including classification of vegetation types) forms
the basis of the description of Natura 2000 habitat types in Europe. The botanical
garden in Nijmegen hosts several examples of Natura 2000 habitat types. The Natura
2000 is a network of nature protection areas in the territory of the European Union,
designated under the Habitats Directive and Birds Directive. The Habitats Directive
divides the EU territory into nine biogeographic regions, each with its own ecological coherence. Natura 2000 sites are selected according to the conditions in each
biogeographical region: selected sites represent species and habitat types under
similar natural conditions across a suite of countries. These biogeographical regions
are somewhat similar to the ecoregions, and the layout is slightly less detailed.
Refinement of these large Natura 2000 biogeographic regions is recommended
especially in areas where endemic species and habitats are concentrated. Smaller
tailor-made units that better express the potential for optimal biodiversity, and in
which biodiversity management and management of ecosystem services can operate
at the proper scale, are needed (Jansen 2009, 2011). According to Lant et al. (2008)
potentially effective remedies against the loss of ecosystem functions lie in the
development of ecosystem districts.
The construction of a plant sociological garden is perhaps the closest to
popularising habitats, biotopes, vegetation types, plant communities or even life
communities, or whatever these clearly recognisable units in the landscape are
called. Such gardens can make both urban and non-urban people familiar with the
types of vegetation in their wider environment. For example, they will recognise the
habitats in their region and may see similarities with other ecoregions where they go
on vacation or on business.
Indonesia is home to 15% the total flora of the world, has 40–50% endemism and
47 different ecosystem types (Wikramanayake et al. 2002; Hutabarat and Wilkie
2018). The Indonesian government is establishing regional botanical gardens in each
of the 47 ecoregions of Indonesia. This new initiative is potentially very important
for in situ and ex situ conservation of the Indonesian flora (Hutabarat and Wilkie
2018).
In Singapore, situated in the ecoregion ‘Peninsular Malaysian rain forests’ of the
Indomalayan realm, it was recognised in a relatively early stage that affinity to nature
is an important issue (Malayan Nature Society 1990). A more recent Nature Conservation Masterplan (National Parks Board 2009) comprises four thrusts: (1) conservation of Key Habitats; (2) Habitat Enhancement, Restoration, and Species
Recovery; (3) Applied Research in Conservation Biology and Planning; and
(4) Community Stewardship and Outreach in Nature (Yeo and Neo 2010). When a
Urban Habitats: Cities and Their Potential for Nature Protection
437
contact with the native flora.
A special form of the wildlife garden is the plant sociological garden which arose
in Bremen and Hannover in Germany and later in Nijmegen in The Netherlands
(Tüxen 1947; Westhoff 1954, 1971). Perhaps the most consistent one was the garden
in Hannover, which aimed to bring together a large number of vegetation types that
occur in the wider region. Unfortunately the garden in Hannover has ceased to exist,
but the garden in Nijmegen still exists, albeit in a reduced state. The model is
interesting, as plant sociology (including classification of vegetation types) forms
the basis of the description of Natura 2000 habitat types in Europe. The botanical
garden in Nijmegen hosts several examples of Natura 2000 habitat types. The Natura
2000 is a network of nature protection areas in the territory of the European Union,
designated under the Habitats Directive and Birds Directive. The Habitats Directive
divides the EU territory into nine biogeographic regions, each with its own ecological coherence. Natura 2000 sites are selected according to the conditions in each
biogeographical region: selected sites represent species and habitat types under
similar natural conditions across a suite of countries. These biogeographical regions
are somewhat similar to the ecoregions, and the layout is slightly less detailed.
Refinement of these large Natura 2000 biogeographic regions is recommended
especially in areas where endemic species and habitats are concentrated. Smaller
tailor-made units that better express the potential for optimal biodiversity, and in
which biodiversity management and management of ecosystem services can operate
at the proper scale, are needed (Jansen 2009, 2011). According to Lant et al. (2008)
potentially effective remedies against the loss of ecosystem functions lie in the
development of ecosystem districts.
The construction of a plant sociological garden is perhaps the closest to
popularising habitats, biotopes, vegetation types, plant communities or even life
communities, or whatever these clearly recognisable units in the landscape are
called. Such gardens can make both urban and non-urban people familiar with the
types of vegetation in their wider environment. For example, they will recognise the
habitats in their region and may see similarities with other ecoregions where they go
on vacation or on business.
Indonesia is home to 15% the total flora of the world, has 40–50% endemism and
47 different ecosystem types (Wikramanayake et al. 2002; Hutabarat and Wilkie
2018). The Indonesian government is establishing regional botanical gardens in each
of the 47 ecoregions of Indonesia. This new initiative is potentially very important
for in situ and ex situ conservation of the Indonesian flora (Hutabarat and Wilkie
2018).
In Singapore, situated in the ecoregion ‘Peninsular Malaysian rain forests’ of the
Indomalayan realm, it was recognised in a relatively early stage that affinity to nature
is an important issue (Malayan Nature Society 1990). A more recent Nature Conservation Masterplan (National Parks Board 2009) comprises four thrusts: (1) conservation of Key Habitats; (2) Habitat Enhancement, Restoration, and Species
Recovery; (3) Applied Research in Conservation Biology and Planning; and
(4) Community Stewardship and Outreach in Nature (Yeo and Neo 2010). When a
Urban Habitats: Cities and Their Potential for Nature Protection
437