Urban habitats usually contain buildings with rooftops, balconies, pavements,
gardens, parks, cemeteries, railway stations, brownfields, and so on. All these are
used not only by humans but also by wildlife. Species compositions of these urban
habitats may differ significantly because of different climates, ecoregions, and use.
Such differences may be even larger especially when these urban areas lie within the
world’s 36 biodiversity hotspots that are presently distinguished (Mittermeier et al.
2011; Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 2016).
The development and growth of urban areas has both negative and positive
effects on the regional biodiversity because of the damage to the original habitats
and the addition of artificial habitats. Compared to surrounding rural areas, cities
have often lower biomass. However, with respect to the taxonomic group considered, the species richness may be higher, e.g. if comparing urban and non-urban
richness of vascular plant or bird species in areas of the same size (Haeupler 1997;
Ferenc et al. 2014; Ives et al. 2016).
According to Weller et al. (2018) there are 422 major cities (over 300,000
inhabitants), located in the Biodiversity Hotspots, 383 of which are expanding and
disturbing the unique habitats and threatening the biodiversity of the Hotspot.
The flora and fauna of a city depends on the ecoregion where it is situated and on
the habitats that are present in the given urban area, their accessibility for species
(native, non-native) and the way these habitats are managed (Nilon et al. 2017).
In all 76 terrestrial ecoregions of North America, urban cover is positively
correlated with both species richness and endemism. Conservation efforts in densely
populated areas may be just as, or even more, important than preserving remote
parks in relatively pristine regions (Ricketts and Imhoff 2003). However, urbanisation also often triggers the replacement of native or endemic species by already
widespread non-native species, reducing spatial diversity (McKinney and Lockwood
1999; Sukopp 2003). In general, the number of non-native species increases towards
centers of urbanisation, while the number of native species decreases (Sukopp 1997;
McKinney 2002). This is no surprise because in general urban density decreases
with distance from the centre of the city (Clifton et al. 2008). However, the wellbeing of city and region residents is affected by both the health and availability of
resources and ecological services from distant ecosystems (Wackernagel et al.
2006), some of which are part of the ecoregion in which their city lies and some
of the ecosystems from other ecoregions.
6 Species Conservation in Botanic Gardens, Aquariums
and Zoos
The objective of modern botanical gardens, aquariums and zoos is much different
from in the past. For example, monastery gardens were often used for the cultivation,
study and use of medicinal plants. Nowadays, botanical gardens are often related to
Urban Habitats: Cities and Their Potential for Nature Protection
435
gardens, parks, cemeteries, railway stations, brownfields, and so on. All these are
used not only by humans but also by wildlife. Species compositions of these urban
habitats may differ significantly because of different climates, ecoregions, and use.
Such differences may be even larger especially when these urban areas lie within the
world’s 36 biodiversity hotspots that are presently distinguished (Mittermeier et al.
2011; Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 2016).
The development and growth of urban areas has both negative and positive
effects on the regional biodiversity because of the damage to the original habitats
and the addition of artificial habitats. Compared to surrounding rural areas, cities
have often lower biomass. However, with respect to the taxonomic group considered, the species richness may be higher, e.g. if comparing urban and non-urban
richness of vascular plant or bird species in areas of the same size (Haeupler 1997;
Ferenc et al. 2014; Ives et al. 2016).
According to Weller et al. (2018) there are 422 major cities (over 300,000
inhabitants), located in the Biodiversity Hotspots, 383 of which are expanding and
disturbing the unique habitats and threatening the biodiversity of the Hotspot.
The flora and fauna of a city depends on the ecoregion where it is situated and on
the habitats that are present in the given urban area, their accessibility for species
(native, non-native) and the way these habitats are managed (Nilon et al. 2017).
In all 76 terrestrial ecoregions of North America, urban cover is positively
correlated with both species richness and endemism. Conservation efforts in densely
populated areas may be just as, or even more, important than preserving remote
parks in relatively pristine regions (Ricketts and Imhoff 2003). However, urbanisation also often triggers the replacement of native or endemic species by already
widespread non-native species, reducing spatial diversity (McKinney and Lockwood
1999; Sukopp 2003). In general, the number of non-native species increases towards
centers of urbanisation, while the number of native species decreases (Sukopp 1997;
McKinney 2002). This is no surprise because in general urban density decreases
with distance from the centre of the city (Clifton et al. 2008). However, the wellbeing of city and region residents is affected by both the health and availability of
resources and ecological services from distant ecosystems (Wackernagel et al.
2006), some of which are part of the ecoregion in which their city lies and some
of the ecosystems from other ecoregions.
6 Species Conservation in Botanic Gardens, Aquariums
and Zoos
The objective of modern botanical gardens, aquariums and zoos is much different
from in the past. For example, monastery gardens were often used for the cultivation,
study and use of medicinal plants. Nowadays, botanical gardens are often related to
Urban Habitats: Cities and Their Potential for Nature Protection
435