With millions of various person-nature relationships, based both on rationality
and emotion—affinity—cities have a high potential for nature protection, manifested
for instance in fundraising campaigns and in private investments in nature and nature
conservation programmes. The affinity to nature, the extent to which individuals
include nature as part of their identity (Schultz 2002), is linked to pro-environmental
actions and a strong motivation for protecting nature. This link makes it important to
investigate the affinity to nature (Frantz et al. 2005; Kaiser et al. 2008; Kals et al.
1999; Liefländer et al. 2013). Nature exposure and affinity to nature can have
positive effects on physical and psychological health, social cohesion, crime reduction, environmental awareness, economic gain, and sense of belonging (Barton and
Pretty 2010; Cervinka et al. 2011; Fuller et al. 2012; Giles-Corti et al. 2005; Howell
et al. 2011; Mayer et al. 2009).
In those ways the majority of the world population is confronted every day with
nature, charging their emotion and knowledge batteries to nature (e.g. Fuller and
Irvine 2010). If most of the population were to experience this almost daily connection, it should be possible to cultivate the broad support of citizens for
pro-environmental behaviour (Dearborn and Kark 2010; Karvonen and Yocom
2011), for example supporting the biodiversity and ecosystems goals of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations 2015).
4 Flora and Fauna of Cities and Urban Habitats
The land area covered by cities is estimated to be around 0.5% globally, with 0.67%
in Northern America, 0.47% in Southern America and 1.78% in Europe (Schneider
et al. 2009, 2010; European Commission 2010). According to NASA SEDAC
(2011) based on GRUMPv1 data roughly 3% of the Earth’s land surface is occupied
by urban areas. These figures give an indication, but there is uncertainty because of
the definition of urban area (e.g. Nowak da Costa et al. 2017). Yet when we take the
figures as an indication, we could roughly say that over half of the world’s population lives in 3% of the earth’s land surface. But cities depend by far more on much
larger surfaces of the earth including resources and ecological services from distant
ecosystems (Wackernagel et al. 2006; Baabou et al. 2017).
Probably, almost all habitats in the world are influenced by long range effects of
human activities and/or waste. Human interference is noticeable in many places.
Very little is left of Earth’s remaining wilderness, both terrestrial and marine (Allan
et al. 2017; Jones et al. 2018). In Europe for example, less than one-fifth of the
habitats and species have a favourable conservation status. Habitat types associated
with agriculture have an even worse status (COM 2009; Janssen et al. 2016).
The degree of human pressure can be represented in several stages, with the
extremes from natural via semi-natural to artificial. The biotopes in urban areas
usually vary from semi-natural to artificial. Nevertheless, in most cities there are also
small patches in parks, gardens, basements, and under roofs without access or traffic.
Human activity is the decisive factor that alters, disturbs or completely destroys the
Urban Habitats: Cities and Their Potential for Nature Protection
431
and emotion—affinity—cities have a high potential for nature protection, manifested
for instance in fundraising campaigns and in private investments in nature and nature
conservation programmes. The affinity to nature, the extent to which individuals
include nature as part of their identity (Schultz 2002), is linked to pro-environmental
actions and a strong motivation for protecting nature. This link makes it important to
investigate the affinity to nature (Frantz et al. 2005; Kaiser et al. 2008; Kals et al.
1999; Liefländer et al. 2013). Nature exposure and affinity to nature can have
positive effects on physical and psychological health, social cohesion, crime reduction, environmental awareness, economic gain, and sense of belonging (Barton and
Pretty 2010; Cervinka et al. 2011; Fuller et al. 2012; Giles-Corti et al. 2005; Howell
et al. 2011; Mayer et al. 2009).
In those ways the majority of the world population is confronted every day with
nature, charging their emotion and knowledge batteries to nature (e.g. Fuller and
Irvine 2010). If most of the population were to experience this almost daily connection, it should be possible to cultivate the broad support of citizens for
pro-environmental behaviour (Dearborn and Kark 2010; Karvonen and Yocom
2011), for example supporting the biodiversity and ecosystems goals of the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations 2015).
4 Flora and Fauna of Cities and Urban Habitats
The land area covered by cities is estimated to be around 0.5% globally, with 0.67%
in Northern America, 0.47% in Southern America and 1.78% in Europe (Schneider
et al. 2009, 2010; European Commission 2010). According to NASA SEDAC
(2011) based on GRUMPv1 data roughly 3% of the Earth’s land surface is occupied
by urban areas. These figures give an indication, but there is uncertainty because of
the definition of urban area (e.g. Nowak da Costa et al. 2017). Yet when we take the
figures as an indication, we could roughly say that over half of the world’s population lives in 3% of the earth’s land surface. But cities depend by far more on much
larger surfaces of the earth including resources and ecological services from distant
ecosystems (Wackernagel et al. 2006; Baabou et al. 2017).
Probably, almost all habitats in the world are influenced by long range effects of
human activities and/or waste. Human interference is noticeable in many places.
Very little is left of Earth’s remaining wilderness, both terrestrial and marine (Allan
et al. 2017; Jones et al. 2018). In Europe for example, less than one-fifth of the
habitats and species have a favourable conservation status. Habitat types associated
with agriculture have an even worse status (COM 2009; Janssen et al. 2016).
The degree of human pressure can be represented in several stages, with the
extremes from natural via semi-natural to artificial. The biotopes in urban areas
usually vary from semi-natural to artificial. Nevertheless, in most cities there are also
small patches in parks, gardens, basements, and under roofs without access or traffic.
Human activity is the decisive factor that alters, disturbs or completely destroys the
Urban Habitats: Cities and Their Potential for Nature Protection
431