into the prairie, due to changes in land use. A savanna-like ecosystem with a mixture
of grasses and shrubs has developed here (Briggs et al. 2005).
With the growth of population in Asia and Africa, urbanisation is increasing
(Boadi et al. 2005). If this trend continues, many ecosystems will be affected due to
the expansion of cities.
Both native and alien invasive species can cause problems for rare, threatened and
endemic plant and animal species. Islands in particular seem to be sensitive to this
problem (Reaser et al. 2007). It is possible that the dispersal of invasive species also
influences the distribution of heathlands and shrubs. In Western Europe, native and
non-native tree species can occupy the coastal heathlands and change the characteristics of a whole ecosystem (Saure et al. 2014). However, these invasions are often
accompanied by changes in or abandonment of traditional use.
Fertilization often causes the extinction of plant species and the related food webs
which are adapted to nutrient-poor conditions. This is the case in many European
heathlands. The higher availability of nitrogen associated with the abandonment of
traditional use results in the decrease of ericoid shrubs and the propagation of grass
species (Terry et al. 2004). The higher nitrogen availability in heathlands can lead to
nitrogen-limited plant growth becoming phosphorus limited (Haerdtle et al. 2009).
Changes in nutrient availability should be taken into consideration in future management of heathlands, as different management practices affect the availability of
nutrients in the ecosystem (Diemont et al. 2013).
To preserve the biodiversity in these habitats, a number of protection and
conservation measures need to be taken.
This goal cannot be achieved by protecting only small, fragmented areas. In
Africa, the protected areas are insufficient to assure the survival of many endemic
animal species, as many of these species are migrants (Western and Ssemakula
1981). The management of non-protected areas can play an important role in the
conservation of the savanna habitat and its endemic species. This is, for example, the
case in Kenya’s Pro-wildlife ranges where wildlife conservation and extensive cattle
grazing coexist (Georgiadis et al. 2007).
In many developing countries poverty and the lack of resources can lead to further
degradation of the ecosystems. The savannas and shrublands of developing countries
can be affected by this problem. In some cases, this is described as a “downward
spiral”: poverty, the overuse of resources and environment degradation influence
each other (Scherr 2000). Poverty reduction, better management of resources and
environment education can help to preserve the diversity of ecosystems.
In Europe, fragmentation and rapid decline of heathland areas can be observed,
and effective management is needed to maintain the last intact areas. The actions
needed depend on the area. In many cases, characteristic heathland has been
successfully restored by removing vegetation and the fertilized top soil, with heathland occurring again after a couple of years of succession. In Dorset, UK, for
example, a variety of management actions were applied to restore heathland from
pioneer succession (Mitchell et al. 1999). A sustainable use of the habitat, such as
sustainable honey, meat and wool production, might be a solution. The management
actions required depend strongly on the specific ecosystem.
Heathland, Scrub and Savanna: Overview, Recent Trends and Outlook
375
of grasses and shrubs has developed here (Briggs et al. 2005).
With the growth of population in Asia and Africa, urbanisation is increasing
(Boadi et al. 2005). If this trend continues, many ecosystems will be affected due to
the expansion of cities.
Both native and alien invasive species can cause problems for rare, threatened and
endemic plant and animal species. Islands in particular seem to be sensitive to this
problem (Reaser et al. 2007). It is possible that the dispersal of invasive species also
influences the distribution of heathlands and shrubs. In Western Europe, native and
non-native tree species can occupy the coastal heathlands and change the characteristics of a whole ecosystem (Saure et al. 2014). However, these invasions are often
accompanied by changes in or abandonment of traditional use.
Fertilization often causes the extinction of plant species and the related food webs
which are adapted to nutrient-poor conditions. This is the case in many European
heathlands. The higher availability of nitrogen associated with the abandonment of
traditional use results in the decrease of ericoid shrubs and the propagation of grass
species (Terry et al. 2004). The higher nitrogen availability in heathlands can lead to
nitrogen-limited plant growth becoming phosphorus limited (Haerdtle et al. 2009).
Changes in nutrient availability should be taken into consideration in future management of heathlands, as different management practices affect the availability of
nutrients in the ecosystem (Diemont et al. 2013).
To preserve the biodiversity in these habitats, a number of protection and
conservation measures need to be taken.
This goal cannot be achieved by protecting only small, fragmented areas. In
Africa, the protected areas are insufficient to assure the survival of many endemic
animal species, as many of these species are migrants (Western and Ssemakula
1981). The management of non-protected areas can play an important role in the
conservation of the savanna habitat and its endemic species. This is, for example, the
case in Kenya’s Pro-wildlife ranges where wildlife conservation and extensive cattle
grazing coexist (Georgiadis et al. 2007).
In many developing countries poverty and the lack of resources can lead to further
degradation of the ecosystems. The savannas and shrublands of developing countries
can be affected by this problem. In some cases, this is described as a “downward
spiral”: poverty, the overuse of resources and environment degradation influence
each other (Scherr 2000). Poverty reduction, better management of resources and
environment education can help to preserve the diversity of ecosystems.
In Europe, fragmentation and rapid decline of heathland areas can be observed,
and effective management is needed to maintain the last intact areas. The actions
needed depend on the area. In many cases, characteristic heathland has been
successfully restored by removing vegetation and the fertilized top soil, with heathland occurring again after a couple of years of succession. In Dorset, UK, for
example, a variety of management actions were applied to restore heathland from
pioneer succession (Mitchell et al. 1999). A sustainable use of the habitat, such as
sustainable honey, meat and wool production, might be a solution. The management
actions required depend strongly on the specific ecosystem.
Heathland, Scrub and Savanna: Overview, Recent Trends and Outlook
375