and mangroves are able to reduce wave heights, property damage and human deaths
(Jin-Eong 2004; Gedan et al. 2011). Particularly coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass
meadows and saltmarshes capture and store huge amounts of carbon, up to 50% of
all carbon sequestered in marine sediments (Union et al. 2005). Costanza et al.
(1997) mention it has been estimated that coastal habitats deliver the highest annual
value, in terms of ecosystem services, of all-natural ecosystems on the planet. This is
in strong contrast with their conservation states, as these ecosystems are being
degraded and disappear at rates five to ten times faster than rainforests (Nellemann
et al. 2009). An open dialogue between scientists, conservation practitioners and
policy makers is urgently needed on the national and international level and with
respect to global change (Vierros 2017).
Today, more and more people live in large cities and settlements at the coasts.
Furthermore, an increasing number of people is attracted by beaches, dunes and
warm water during holiday. People are visiting scenic places at the coast, e.g. for
sunbathing, swimming, diving, reef-, wale- and birdwatching, or simply relaxation.
Thus, tourism to coastal areas such as beaches implies both economical attractivity
and pressure to natural systems (Martínez et al. 2013).
3 Selected Habitat Types
Coastal habitats can be classified in relation to landscape formation and genesis
(geomorphology, e.g. Valentin 1952; Owens 1994) which provides a sound basis for
other ways of classifying coastal landscapes (Finkl 2004).
Apart from submerged algae in the sub- and intertidal zones, coastal vegetation
requires moderate water conditions and a relatively high substrate stability, ranging
from seagrass beds on mud flats, algal, lichen and vascular plant communities on
rocky shores, productive saltmarshes, halophytic shrubland and (tropical) mangroves, as well as more or less open grassland of coastal dunes. Everywhere, the
vegetation interacts with water conditions and sediments, and therefore are often
used for habitat classification. As such, coastal habitats can be classified with respect
to water depth, duration of inundation, proximity to the shoreline, salt content, type
of substrate, and geomorphology, among others. They often undergo strong spatial
and temporal dynamics, strongly influenced by wind and water, flooding, salinity,
and periodicity of drought and precipitation. The flora and fauna in these habitats are
often highly adapted to dynamic habitats. Unvegetated habitats of the sublittoral and
littoral zones can be classified by substrate, e.g. rocky ground, gravel, sand or clay,
or by the time of inundation (Goetting et al. 1988; IUCN 2019). Parts of the beaches
and rocky shores which are inundated during high tides belong to the intertidal zone,
higher elevated parts or areas which are not flooded on a regular basis, belong to the
supratidal zone.
The classification of coastal vegetated habitats is furthermore supported by the
underlying substrate, location in relation to the water level or in proximity to the
shoreline, and salinity. Going more into detail, dynamic processes such as the force
Coastal Habitats, Shallow Seas and Inland Saline Steppes: Ecology,. . .
283
(Jin-Eong 2004; Gedan et al. 2011). Particularly coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass
meadows and saltmarshes capture and store huge amounts of carbon, up to 50% of
all carbon sequestered in marine sediments (Union et al. 2005). Costanza et al.
(1997) mention it has been estimated that coastal habitats deliver the highest annual
value, in terms of ecosystem services, of all-natural ecosystems on the planet. This is
in strong contrast with their conservation states, as these ecosystems are being
degraded and disappear at rates five to ten times faster than rainforests (Nellemann
et al. 2009). An open dialogue between scientists, conservation practitioners and
policy makers is urgently needed on the national and international level and with
respect to global change (Vierros 2017).
Today, more and more people live in large cities and settlements at the coasts.
Furthermore, an increasing number of people is attracted by beaches, dunes and
warm water during holiday. People are visiting scenic places at the coast, e.g. for
sunbathing, swimming, diving, reef-, wale- and birdwatching, or simply relaxation.
Thus, tourism to coastal areas such as beaches implies both economical attractivity
and pressure to natural systems (Martínez et al. 2013).
3 Selected Habitat Types
Coastal habitats can be classified in relation to landscape formation and genesis
(geomorphology, e.g. Valentin 1952; Owens 1994) which provides a sound basis for
other ways of classifying coastal landscapes (Finkl 2004).
Apart from submerged algae in the sub- and intertidal zones, coastal vegetation
requires moderate water conditions and a relatively high substrate stability, ranging
from seagrass beds on mud flats, algal, lichen and vascular plant communities on
rocky shores, productive saltmarshes, halophytic shrubland and (tropical) mangroves, as well as more or less open grassland of coastal dunes. Everywhere, the
vegetation interacts with water conditions and sediments, and therefore are often
used for habitat classification. As such, coastal habitats can be classified with respect
to water depth, duration of inundation, proximity to the shoreline, salt content, type
of substrate, and geomorphology, among others. They often undergo strong spatial
and temporal dynamics, strongly influenced by wind and water, flooding, salinity,
and periodicity of drought and precipitation. The flora and fauna in these habitats are
often highly adapted to dynamic habitats. Unvegetated habitats of the sublittoral and
littoral zones can be classified by substrate, e.g. rocky ground, gravel, sand or clay,
or by the time of inundation (Goetting et al. 1988; IUCN 2019). Parts of the beaches
and rocky shores which are inundated during high tides belong to the intertidal zone,
higher elevated parts or areas which are not flooded on a regular basis, belong to the
supratidal zone.
The classification of coastal vegetated habitats is furthermore supported by the
underlying substrate, location in relation to the water level or in proximity to the
shoreline, and salinity. Going more into detail, dynamic processes such as the force
Coastal Habitats, Shallow Seas and Inland Saline Steppes: Ecology,. . .
283