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S. Koteswari and Y. Shivraj Narayan
Fig. 1 Foot anatomy
(Source EKPTA https://doi.
org/10.1016/b978-0-323-544
98-6.00011-4311–350)
1.1 Foot Anatomy [2, 3]
The foot is a flexible structure of bones, joints, muscles and soft tissues that help to
stand upright and perform activities like walking, running, and jumping. The foot is
divided into three sections as shown in Fig. 1.
• Forefoot contains phalanges and is connected to metatarsals.
• Midfoot is a pyramid-like collection of bones that form the arches of the foot.
• Hindfoot or tarsals forms the heel and ankle.
Postural alignments, lower limb mechanisms and disorders mostly depend on the
height/type of arch [4].
1.2 Types of Foot Arches [2, 5, 6]
Low arch/flat foot/pes planus is foot with high shock-absorbing capabilities. It is
classified as; flexible flat foot and rigid flat foot. Medium arch foot is biomechanically
efficient, moderately flexible. High arch/pes cavus is very rigid, low shock-absorbing
capabilities. All the 3 types of arches are as shown in Fig. 2.
Among the types of foot arches, the prevalence of flat foot is 10–25% [7]. There
are different ways to identify flat foot during weight-bearing condition (Fig. 3).
1.3 Determination of Flat Foot on Weight Bearing Condition
Subtalar Joint Angle: For evaluation rear view of tibia is referred [8].
Calcaneal Pitch Angle: If the angle between metatarsal, calcaneus and navicular
tuberosity is less than 17° to 18° it represents flat foot as shown in Fig. 4 [3].
S. Koteswari and Y. Shivraj Narayan
Fig. 1 Foot anatomy
(Source EKPTA https://doi.
org/10.1016/b978-0-323-544
98-6.00011-4311–350)
1.1 Foot Anatomy [2, 3]
The foot is a flexible structure of bones, joints, muscles and soft tissues that help to
stand upright and perform activities like walking, running, and jumping. The foot is
divided into three sections as shown in Fig. 1.
• Forefoot contains phalanges and is connected to metatarsals.
• Midfoot is a pyramid-like collection of bones that form the arches of the foot.
• Hindfoot or tarsals forms the heel and ankle.
Postural alignments, lower limb mechanisms and disorders mostly depend on the
height/type of arch [4].
1.2 Types of Foot Arches [2, 5, 6]
Low arch/flat foot/pes planus is foot with high shock-absorbing capabilities. It is
classified as; flexible flat foot and rigid flat foot. Medium arch foot is biomechanically
efficient, moderately flexible. High arch/pes cavus is very rigid, low shock-absorbing
capabilities. All the 3 types of arches are as shown in Fig. 2.
Among the types of foot arches, the prevalence of flat foot is 10–25% [7]. There
are different ways to identify flat foot during weight-bearing condition (Fig. 3).
1.3 Determination of Flat Foot on Weight Bearing Condition
Subtalar Joint Angle: For evaluation rear view of tibia is referred [8].
Calcaneal Pitch Angle: If the angle between metatarsal, calcaneus and navicular
tuberosity is less than 17° to 18° it represents flat foot as shown in Fig. 4 [3].