1.3 Alphabets and Hieroglyphs
5
G
A
A
A
A
A
G
G
G
G
C
C
C
C
U
U
U
U
UC AG
U C A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A G
U
C A G UC A G
A
G
U C
A
A
A
A G
G
G
G
C
C
C
U
U
U
P
S
U
nG
nG
oG
oG
oG
G
P
P
P
P
P
nM
nM
M
M
nM
nM
nM
Phenylalanine
Phe
Leucine
Leu
Leucine
Leu
Proline
Pro
Histidine
His
Glutamine
Gln
Isoleucine
Ile
Methionine
Met
Threonine
Thr
Asparagine
Asn
Lysine
Lys
Arginine
Arg
Arginine
Arg
Valine
Val
Alanine
Ala
Glutamic acid
Glu
Aspartic acid
Asp
Glycine
Gly
Serine
Ser
Serine
Ser
Tyrosine
Tyr
Cysteine
Cys
Tryptophan
Trp
Stops
Stop
E
G F L
S
S
Y
C
W
L
P
H
R
R
Q
I
M
T
N
K
V
A
D
89.09
75.07
174.20
174.20
146.19
165.19
133.11
117.15
147.13
146.15
155.16
115.13
105.09
105.09
131.18
132.12
MW
= 149 .21 Da
131.18
119.12
204.23
131.18
181.19
121.16
HN
NH2
NH
H2N
OH
O
H2N
C
H3
OH
O
H2N
O
H2N
OH
O
O
HO
H2N
OH
O
HS
H2N
OH
O
H2N
O
NH2
OH
O
O
OH
H2N
OH
O
H2N
OH
O
NH
H2N
OH
O
N
C
H3
CH3
H2N
OH
O
C
H3
C
H3
H2N
OH
O
C
H3
C
H3
H2N
OH
O
H2N
H2N
OH
O
C
H3
S
H2N
OH
O
H2N
OH
O
NH
OH
O
H2N
HO
OH
O
H2N
HO
OH
O
H2N
HO
CH3
OH
O
NH
H2N
OH
O
HO
H2N
OH
O
H2N
C
H3
CH3
OH
O
Basic
Acidic
Polar
Nonpolar
(hydrophobic)
S -
M -
P -
U -
nM -
oG -
nG -
Sumo
Methyl
Phospho
Ubiquitin
N-Methyl
O-glycosyl
N-glycosyl
Modification
amino acid
2nd
1st position
3rd
U
C
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Α
Β
Γ
Δ
Ε
Ϝ
Ζ
Η
Θ
Ι
Κ
Λ
Μ
Ν
Ξ
Ο
Π
Ϻ
Ϙ
Ρ
Σ
Τ
Υ
Φ
א
ב
ג
ד
ה
ו
ז
ח
ט
י
כ
ל
מ
נ
ס
ע
פ
צ
ק
ר
ש
ת
Fig. 1.1 Left: The genetic code. From the center outward: bases, codons, and coded aminoacids.
Right: Latin, Greek, Phoenician, and Hebrew alphabets
in its disunity allowing more latitude for freedom. When a Portuguese king denied
funding to Columbus or Magellan, they could turn to a Spanish king, while admiral
Zheng He had nowhere to go when a Ming emperor ordered the destruction of his
far more powerful fleet. The habit of discerning the constituent parts of speech and
transcribing them by elementary entities could naturally evolve into the analytical
approach adopted by the Biblical commandments, Greek philosophy, and modern
science.
Which kind of a script is preferred by Nature? An alphabetic description of forms
works well on the level of physics and chemistry, but blurs as we move higher up
the staircase of complexity. Dividing a multitude into discrete partitions might be
uncertain. Thus, Linnaean taxonomy becomes murky in assigning the transitional
forms of similar species. The sounds of a spoken language depend on continuous
shifts in the positions of the lips, tongue, and vocal cords translated into continuous
changes of pitch and intensity of sound. They are discretized into a finite number
5
G
A
A
A
A
A
G
G
G
G
C
C
C
C
U
U
U
U
UC AG
U C A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A G
U
C A G UC A G
A
G
U C
A
A
A
A G
G
G
G
C
C
C
U
U
U
P
S
U
nG
nG
oG
oG
oG
G
P
P
P
P
P
nM
nM
M
M
nM
nM
nM
Phenylalanine
Phe
Leucine
Leu
Leucine
Leu
Proline
Pro
Histidine
His
Glutamine
Gln
Isoleucine
Ile
Methionine
Met
Threonine
Thr
Asparagine
Asn
Lysine
Lys
Arginine
Arg
Arginine
Arg
Valine
Val
Alanine
Ala
Glutamic acid
Glu
Aspartic acid
Asp
Glycine
Gly
Serine
Ser
Serine
Ser
Tyrosine
Tyr
Cysteine
Cys
Tryptophan
Trp
Stops
Stop
E
G F L
S
S
Y
C
W
L
P
H
R
R
Q
I
M
T
N
K
V
A
D
89.09
75.07
174.20
174.20
146.19
165.19
133.11
117.15
147.13
146.15
155.16
115.13
105.09
105.09
131.18
132.12
MW
= 149 .21 Da
131.18
119.12
204.23
131.18
181.19
121.16
HN
NH2
NH
H2N
OH
O
H2N
C
H3
OH
O
H2N
O
H2N
OH
O
O
HO
H2N
OH
O
HS
H2N
OH
O
H2N
O
NH2
OH
O
O
OH
H2N
OH
O
H2N
OH
O
NH
H2N
OH
O
N
C
H3
CH3
H2N
OH
O
C
H3
C
H3
H2N
OH
O
C
H3
C
H3
H2N
OH
O
H2N
H2N
OH
O
C
H3
S
H2N
OH
O
H2N
OH
O
NH
OH
O
H2N
HO
OH
O
H2N
HO
OH
O
H2N
HO
CH3
OH
O
NH
H2N
OH
O
HO
H2N
OH
O
H2N
C
H3
CH3
OH
O
Basic
Acidic
Polar
Nonpolar
(hydrophobic)
S -
M -
P -
U -
nM -
oG -
nG -
Sumo
Methyl
Phospho
Ubiquitin
N-Methyl
O-glycosyl
N-glycosyl
Modification
amino acid
2nd
1st position
3rd
U
C
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Α
Β
Γ
Δ
Ε
Ϝ
Ζ
Η
Θ
Ι
Κ
Λ
Μ
Ν
Ξ
Ο
Π
Ϻ
Ϙ
Ρ
Σ
Τ
Υ
Φ
א
ב
ג
ד
ה
ו
ז
ח
ט
י
כ
ל
מ
נ
ס
ע
פ
צ
ק
ר
ש
ת
Fig. 1.1 Left: The genetic code. From the center outward: bases, codons, and coded aminoacids.
Right: Latin, Greek, Phoenician, and Hebrew alphabets
in its disunity allowing more latitude for freedom. When a Portuguese king denied
funding to Columbus or Magellan, they could turn to a Spanish king, while admiral
Zheng He had nowhere to go when a Ming emperor ordered the destruction of his
far more powerful fleet. The habit of discerning the constituent parts of speech and
transcribing them by elementary entities could naturally evolve into the analytical
approach adopted by the Biblical commandments, Greek philosophy, and modern
science.
Which kind of a script is preferred by Nature? An alphabetic description of forms
works well on the level of physics and chemistry, but blurs as we move higher up
the staircase of complexity. Dividing a multitude into discrete partitions might be
uncertain. Thus, Linnaean taxonomy becomes murky in assigning the transitional
forms of similar species. The sounds of a spoken language depend on continuous
shifts in the positions of the lips, tongue, and vocal cords translated into continuous
changes of pitch and intensity of sound. They are discretized into a finite number