9.10.3 Hydrogen Direct Injection.......................................................... 270
9.10.4 Preignition Problems in Hydrogen Engines............................ 271
9.11 Hydrogen in Compression Ignition Engines ......................................... 272
9.11.1 Dual Fuel Mode Operation......................................................... 272
9.11.2 Direct Injection............................................................................. 273
9.12 Hydrogen–CNG Engines.......................................................................... 274
9.12.1 HCNG Engine Tests at ENEA .................................................... 278
9.13 Hydrogen Storage ...................................................................................... 281
9.13.1 Liquid Hydrogen ......................................................................... 281
9.13.2 Compressed Hydrogen ............................................................... 282
9.13.3 Solid Hydrogen ............................................................................ 283
9.13.4 Onboard-Hydrogen Storage ....................................................... 285
9.14 Hydrogen Benefits ..................................................................................... 288
9.15 Hydrogen Barriers and Challenges......................................................... 289
References............................................................................................................. 291
244
Alternative Fuels for Transportation
9.1 Introduction
Hydrogen is a very promising alternative fuel and has been receiving more
attention all over the world in recent years. Research and development activities were carried out out of curiosity, mainly with an objective to evaluate
the suitability of hydrogen as an engine fuel. During an energy crisis and
World Wars I and II, hydrogen is used as fuel in a dual fuel mode or as a
sole fuel. The abundant availability of petroleum products suppresses the
commercialization of hydrogen as fuel for vehicles. Currently the search for
alternative fuels has picked up all over the world and hence, the research and
demonstration of alternative fueled vehicles have begun. For the past few
decades many renewable clean-burning alternative fuels have been studied.
Hydrogen is the ideal candidate as an energy carrier for both mobile and
stationary applications while averting adverse effects on the environment
and reducing dependence on imported oil for countries without natural
resources. Biodiesel, alcohols (both ethanol and methanol), compressed
natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), biogas, producer gas, and
hydrogen were investigated as alternative fuels for both spark ignition (SI)
and compression ignition (CI) engines.
Hydrogen is sometimes called the fuel of the future and certainly has a
number of inherent attractive features when considered as a fuel for road
vehicles. Hydrogen is by far the most abundant element in the universe (90%
on the basis of number of atoms), and in the earth’s crust it is one of the
most abundant elements. On Earth, hydrogen is almost exclusively found in
chemical compounds, as opposed to free molecular hydrogen that is virtually unseen in nature. A consequence of the latter is that hydrogen is not a
9.10.4 Preignition Problems in Hydrogen Engines............................ 271
9.11 Hydrogen in Compression Ignition Engines ......................................... 272
9.11.1 Dual Fuel Mode Operation......................................................... 272
9.11.2 Direct Injection............................................................................. 273
9.12 Hydrogen–CNG Engines.......................................................................... 274
9.12.1 HCNG Engine Tests at ENEA .................................................... 278
9.13 Hydrogen Storage ...................................................................................... 281
9.13.1 Liquid Hydrogen ......................................................................... 281
9.13.2 Compressed Hydrogen ............................................................... 282
9.13.3 Solid Hydrogen ............................................................................ 283
9.13.4 Onboard-Hydrogen Storage ....................................................... 285
9.14 Hydrogen Benefits ..................................................................................... 288
9.15 Hydrogen Barriers and Challenges......................................................... 289
References............................................................................................................. 291
244
Alternative Fuels for Transportation
9.1 Introduction
Hydrogen is a very promising alternative fuel and has been receiving more
attention all over the world in recent years. Research and development activities were carried out out of curiosity, mainly with an objective to evaluate
the suitability of hydrogen as an engine fuel. During an energy crisis and
World Wars I and II, hydrogen is used as fuel in a dual fuel mode or as a
sole fuel. The abundant availability of petroleum products suppresses the
commercialization of hydrogen as fuel for vehicles. Currently the search for
alternative fuels has picked up all over the world and hence, the research and
demonstration of alternative fueled vehicles have begun. For the past few
decades many renewable clean-burning alternative fuels have been studied.
Hydrogen is the ideal candidate as an energy carrier for both mobile and
stationary applications while averting adverse effects on the environment
and reducing dependence on imported oil for countries without natural
resources. Biodiesel, alcohols (both ethanol and methanol), compressed
natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), biogas, producer gas, and
hydrogen were investigated as alternative fuels for both spark ignition (SI)
and compression ignition (CI) engines.
Hydrogen is sometimes called the fuel of the future and certainly has a
number of inherent attractive features when considered as a fuel for road
vehicles. Hydrogen is by far the most abundant element in the universe (90%
on the basis of number of atoms), and in the earth’s crust it is one of the
most abundant elements. On Earth, hydrogen is almost exclusively found in
chemical compounds, as opposed to free molecular hydrogen that is virtually unseen in nature. A consequence of the latter is that hydrogen is not a