2
1 Introduction: Political Dimensions …
generally focused on reconciling the ecological and economic pillars (Barnett 2001;
Lehtonen 2004; Robinson 2004; Cook and Smith 2012). Sometimes such social
equity dimensions are treated as supplementary (see UNDP 2011). But such social
objectives are inherent to the sustainability concept (WCED 1987; UNCED 1992;
UNCSD 2012) as much as they are fundamental to understanding and addressing
environmental issues (Berkes and Folke 1998; Ostrom 2005; UNRISD 2012).
Social dimensions are critical to sustainable development, as the 2030 Agenda
highlights (UN General Assembly 2015). Improvements to basic living standards,
inclusiveness promotion, and poverty eradication have long been significant tenets
of “development” (Sachs 1979; UNCED 1992). Yet, already before the shock of
the COVID-19 pandemic, about 821 million people worldwide were undernourished (FAO 2019), 2.1 billion lacked access to clean and safe drinking water
(WHO/UNICEF 2019), and 860 million lived without electricity (IEA 2019).
At least three rationales would underscore more substantive actions to change
such a reality. First, we may regard poverty eradication and social equity promotion as an ethical or moral imperative. Principles of justice, solidarity, and empathy
for others are present in most philosophical or religious traditions—as in the socalled “golden rule” to seek for others the same as for oneself (Blackburn 2001;
Singer 2002). Second, these goals also have a legal nature, as they are enshrined in
democratic values and international law. Such laws include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, as
well as non-binding legal instruments such as the SDGs (UN General Assembly
1948; UNCED 1992; Bastos Lima 2009; Gupta et al. 2010; Gupta and Lebel 2010;
UN General Assembly 2015). Those international commitments request universal
access to essential resources and the opportunity for political participation, as well
as the right to equitable development that prioritizes the needs of the least advantaged (UNCED 1992; Rawls 2001, p. 149). The 2030 Agenda makes this principle
explicit aiming to “reach the furthest behind first” (UN General Assembly 2015,
p. 3). Finally, equity is crucial to social welfare, as poverty and inequality compromise a wide array of other human development and social quality indicators. Poverty
curtails both individual and collective potentials for intellectual and cultural expression (UNRISD 2010). Inequality, in turn, is often linked to low levels of social trust,
high rates of violent crime, lower educational performance, and higher incidence
of physical and mental health issues (WHO 2008; Wilkinson and Pickett 2009).
Notably, these are issues that affect unequal societies as a whole—not just the poor.
Social aspects are also crucial in dealing with environmental issues. Values, principles, norms, and other institutions are fundamental to understanding how—and
why—human activities impact nature and society itself (Finnemore and Sikkink
2001; Conca 2006; Biermann et al. 2009, p. 72). A Foresight Report of the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has identified “Aligning Governance to
the Challenges of Global Sustainability” as the most pressing environmental issue
for the twenty-first century (UNEP 2012). It suggests that there needs to be considerably more attention to the role of institutions and governance mechanisms built to
orientate human activity, hence on the social and political dynamics that shape them.
Likewise, the social impacts of environmental degradation and responses created to
1 Introduction: Political Dimensions …
generally focused on reconciling the ecological and economic pillars (Barnett 2001;
Lehtonen 2004; Robinson 2004; Cook and Smith 2012). Sometimes such social
equity dimensions are treated as supplementary (see UNDP 2011). But such social
objectives are inherent to the sustainability concept (WCED 1987; UNCED 1992;
UNCSD 2012) as much as they are fundamental to understanding and addressing
environmental issues (Berkes and Folke 1998; Ostrom 2005; UNRISD 2012).
Social dimensions are critical to sustainable development, as the 2030 Agenda
highlights (UN General Assembly 2015). Improvements to basic living standards,
inclusiveness promotion, and poverty eradication have long been significant tenets
of “development” (Sachs 1979; UNCED 1992). Yet, already before the shock of
the COVID-19 pandemic, about 821 million people worldwide were undernourished (FAO 2019), 2.1 billion lacked access to clean and safe drinking water
(WHO/UNICEF 2019), and 860 million lived without electricity (IEA 2019).
At least three rationales would underscore more substantive actions to change
such a reality. First, we may regard poverty eradication and social equity promotion as an ethical or moral imperative. Principles of justice, solidarity, and empathy
for others are present in most philosophical or religious traditions—as in the socalled “golden rule” to seek for others the same as for oneself (Blackburn 2001;
Singer 2002). Second, these goals also have a legal nature, as they are enshrined in
democratic values and international law. Such laws include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, as
well as non-binding legal instruments such as the SDGs (UN General Assembly
1948; UNCED 1992; Bastos Lima 2009; Gupta et al. 2010; Gupta and Lebel 2010;
UN General Assembly 2015). Those international commitments request universal
access to essential resources and the opportunity for political participation, as well
as the right to equitable development that prioritizes the needs of the least advantaged (UNCED 1992; Rawls 2001, p. 149). The 2030 Agenda makes this principle
explicit aiming to “reach the furthest behind first” (UN General Assembly 2015,
p. 3). Finally, equity is crucial to social welfare, as poverty and inequality compromise a wide array of other human development and social quality indicators. Poverty
curtails both individual and collective potentials for intellectual and cultural expression (UNRISD 2010). Inequality, in turn, is often linked to low levels of social trust,
high rates of violent crime, lower educational performance, and higher incidence
of physical and mental health issues (WHO 2008; Wilkinson and Pickett 2009).
Notably, these are issues that affect unequal societies as a whole—not just the poor.
Social aspects are also crucial in dealing with environmental issues. Values, principles, norms, and other institutions are fundamental to understanding how—and
why—human activities impact nature and society itself (Finnemore and Sikkink
2001; Conca 2006; Biermann et al. 2009, p. 72). A Foresight Report of the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has identified “Aligning Governance to
the Challenges of Global Sustainability” as the most pressing environmental issue
for the twenty-first century (UNEP 2012). It suggests that there needs to be considerably more attention to the role of institutions and governance mechanisms built to
orientate human activity, hence on the social and political dynamics that shape them.
Likewise, the social impacts of environmental degradation and responses created to