4.3.2 Soil Components
In general, soils are characterized by four components: inorganic substance, OM,
soil water, and soil atmosphere.
4.3.2.1 Inorganic Soil Substance
Ionic solids – ion of the metals: Ag, Al, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cs, Cu, Fe, Hg, K, Li, Mg,
Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sr, Ti, Zn, and Zr. Trace elements – is one of the most important
aspects of the variability of soil mineral composition. The most important trace
elements are As, B, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, Ti, V, and Zn, which are found
in the primary and secondary part of the soil. Primary silicates – occur in soils by the
physical degradation of parental rock material. Chemical degradation of primary
silicates contributes to native fertility and soil electrolyte content. Clay minerals –
are the aluminosilicates that predominate in the clay fractions at the intermediation of
the advanced degradation phases. Oxides and hydroxides – because of their high
abundance in the lithosphere and their low solubility at pH values in the normal pH
range, Al, Fe, and Mn form the most important oxides, oxide-hydroxides,
hydroxides and oxyhydroxides in soils. Carbonates and sulfates – of these minerals,
gypsum and calcite can be dissolved and reprecipitated in a soil profile traversed by
rainwater and irrigation water and can be found as a coating on soil minerals,
including calcite. Sulfates and sodium carbonates are formed at the top of the soil
profile, drying by evaporation (Konstantinova et al. 2019).
4.3.2.2 The Organic Substance From Soil: Biomolecules
Soils are biological media in which there is a variety of MOs. Ten grams of fertile
soil can contain a population of bacteria, equal to the human population of the globe.
One kilogram of soil can contain 500 billion bacteria, 10 billion actinomycetes, and
almost one trillion of fungi. The contribution of plant roots can be added to this
microbial biomass. Soil MOs play a role in catalyzing oxidation–reduction reactions.
Exudates released by MOs and the roots of healthy plants are important for soil
acidity and contribute to the cycle of trace elements in the soil. Organic substances:
The common aliphatic organic acids are CH 2 O 2 , C 2 H 2 O 4 , C 2 H 4 O 2 , C 4 H 6 O 6 , and
C 6 H 8 O 7 . The amino acids from soil, such as Gly, Ala, Asp, and Glu, can react to
form peptides, which in turn can turn into proteins (polymers). Another important
class of biopolymers in soils is the carbohydrate class. Phenols, with their soils by
polymerization, form lignin which, together with cellulose, is an important precursor
of HSs in the soil. The humus is the total of OSs in the soil, except for materials
identifiable as partially modified or unmodified biomass (parts of plants and MOs).
Humus plays a role in aggregate formation, soil acidity control, nutrient cycles, and
detoxification of hazardous compounds. Biochemical processes involved in the
formation of humus are decomposition of biomass components (including lignin)
into simple organic compounds; the microbial metabolism of simple compounds;
cycle C, H, N, and O between organic soil and microbial biomass; and microbial
mediated polymerization of the organic compounds in the cycle. The organic
material contains the precipitate (humic acid) which forms after the soil is mixed
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In general, soils are characterized by four components: inorganic substance, OM,
soil water, and soil atmosphere.
4.3.2.1 Inorganic Soil Substance
Ionic solids – ion of the metals: Ag, Al, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cs, Cu, Fe, Hg, K, Li, Mg,
Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sr, Ti, Zn, and Zr. Trace elements – is one of the most important
aspects of the variability of soil mineral composition. The most important trace
elements are As, B, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, Ti, V, and Zn, which are found
in the primary and secondary part of the soil. Primary silicates – occur in soils by the
physical degradation of parental rock material. Chemical degradation of primary
silicates contributes to native fertility and soil electrolyte content. Clay minerals –
are the aluminosilicates that predominate in the clay fractions at the intermediation of
the advanced degradation phases. Oxides and hydroxides – because of their high
abundance in the lithosphere and their low solubility at pH values in the normal pH
range, Al, Fe, and Mn form the most important oxides, oxide-hydroxides,
hydroxides and oxyhydroxides in soils. Carbonates and sulfates – of these minerals,
gypsum and calcite can be dissolved and reprecipitated in a soil profile traversed by
rainwater and irrigation water and can be found as a coating on soil minerals,
including calcite. Sulfates and sodium carbonates are formed at the top of the soil
profile, drying by evaporation (Konstantinova et al. 2019).
4.3.2.2 The Organic Substance From Soil: Biomolecules
Soils are biological media in which there is a variety of MOs. Ten grams of fertile
soil can contain a population of bacteria, equal to the human population of the globe.
One kilogram of soil can contain 500 billion bacteria, 10 billion actinomycetes, and
almost one trillion of fungi. The contribution of plant roots can be added to this
microbial biomass. Soil MOs play a role in catalyzing oxidation–reduction reactions.
Exudates released by MOs and the roots of healthy plants are important for soil
acidity and contribute to the cycle of trace elements in the soil. Organic substances:
The common aliphatic organic acids are CH 2 O 2 , C 2 H 2 O 4 , C 2 H 4 O 2 , C 4 H 6 O 6 , and
C 6 H 8 O 7 . The amino acids from soil, such as Gly, Ala, Asp, and Glu, can react to
form peptides, which in turn can turn into proteins (polymers). Another important
class of biopolymers in soils is the carbohydrate class. Phenols, with their soils by
polymerization, form lignin which, together with cellulose, is an important precursor
of HSs in the soil. The humus is the total of OSs in the soil, except for materials
identifiable as partially modified or unmodified biomass (parts of plants and MOs).
Humus plays a role in aggregate formation, soil acidity control, nutrient cycles, and
detoxification of hazardous compounds. Biochemical processes involved in the
formation of humus are decomposition of biomass components (including lignin)
into simple organic compounds; the microbial metabolism of simple compounds;
cycle C, H, N, and O between organic soil and microbial biomass; and microbial
mediated polymerization of the organic compounds in the cycle. The organic
material contains the precipitate (humic acid) which forms after the soil is mixed
4 Advanced Technologies for Ecological Reconstruction and Bioremediation of. . .
89