degradation, mineralization or sorption to sludge, which is a repository of microorganism during sewage treatment work degradation processes.
4. The reported multistep extraction protocols reduced the matrix influences and
improved recovery under stability of pH. The delivered extracts were very clean
using several solid-phase extraction adsorbents as recent advances. The effluent
concentrations ranged from 0.3 to 30.2 ng L
À1 with percentage recoveries from
78.6 to 97.8%, using solid-phase extraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in many studies.
5. The observed degree of removal of drugs from the influent and its relative
concentrations were higher when compared to the effluent drug concentrations
where about 10 times higher in the influent compared to the effluent were found.
However, improved sampling strategies and recovery, new detection methodologies and reduction of matrix influences employed at the determination of most
effluents have added new trends that will further improve the treatment capability
and assessments of sewage treatment plants.
Keywords Drugs · Pharmaceuticals · Wastewater · Analysis · Environment
9.1 Introduction
Human activities impact the environment through occurrence of pollutants and the
interconnectedness of their metabolites in a myriad of ways. Chemical pollution is
caused by the presence of dyes, solvents, pesticides, heavy metals and chemicals
from industrial wastes and direct dumping to the aquatic environment. Disrupting
chemicals such as natural hormones from humans and animals and phytoestrogen as
well as agricultural herbicides and fertilizers are in the environment. Other sources
such as mining, deforestation and release of semi-volatile organics have worldwide
significant consequences. For example, nitrates are found from fertilizers; industrial
effluents have bisphenol A, nonylphenol, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and
phthalates (Rogers 1996).
Pharmaceutical substances are ever-increasing at the risks to our lives as a result
of high consumption and deposition of many of these therapeutic classes of drugs
harbouring potential consequences for the environment. Despite the continuous
discharge and rapid rise of some of these chemicals that are mutagenic, reproductive,
toxic and carcinogenic in the environment, the assessment of occurrence and metabolism of pharmaceuticaldrugs and associated metabolites would continue to generate
concerns due to the underappreciated levels of inadvertent and purposeful discharges
of these toxicological substances (Mustapha 2013).
In recent years, there have been global concerns about the emerging levels of
abused pharmaceuticals (illicit drugs) apart from drugs used for therapeutic purposes. The escalating levels of these drugs have prompted the need for proper
monitoring of their prevalence in order to stem its social and environmental impacts.
9 Fate of Pharmaceutical Drugs and Metabolites in the Environment
279
4. The reported multistep extraction protocols reduced the matrix influences and
improved recovery under stability of pH. The delivered extracts were very clean
using several solid-phase extraction adsorbents as recent advances. The effluent
concentrations ranged from 0.3 to 30.2 ng L
À1 with percentage recoveries from
78.6 to 97.8%, using solid-phase extraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in many studies.
5. The observed degree of removal of drugs from the influent and its relative
concentrations were higher when compared to the effluent drug concentrations
where about 10 times higher in the influent compared to the effluent were found.
However, improved sampling strategies and recovery, new detection methodologies and reduction of matrix influences employed at the determination of most
effluents have added new trends that will further improve the treatment capability
and assessments of sewage treatment plants.
Keywords Drugs · Pharmaceuticals · Wastewater · Analysis · Environment
9.1 Introduction
Human activities impact the environment through occurrence of pollutants and the
interconnectedness of their metabolites in a myriad of ways. Chemical pollution is
caused by the presence of dyes, solvents, pesticides, heavy metals and chemicals
from industrial wastes and direct dumping to the aquatic environment. Disrupting
chemicals such as natural hormones from humans and animals and phytoestrogen as
well as agricultural herbicides and fertilizers are in the environment. Other sources
such as mining, deforestation and release of semi-volatile organics have worldwide
significant consequences. For example, nitrates are found from fertilizers; industrial
effluents have bisphenol A, nonylphenol, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and
phthalates (Rogers 1996).
Pharmaceutical substances are ever-increasing at the risks to our lives as a result
of high consumption and deposition of many of these therapeutic classes of drugs
harbouring potential consequences for the environment. Despite the continuous
discharge and rapid rise of some of these chemicals that are mutagenic, reproductive,
toxic and carcinogenic in the environment, the assessment of occurrence and metabolism of pharmaceuticaldrugs and associated metabolites would continue to generate
concerns due to the underappreciated levels of inadvertent and purposeful discharges
of these toxicological substances (Mustapha 2013).
In recent years, there have been global concerns about the emerging levels of
abused pharmaceuticals (illicit drugs) apart from drugs used for therapeutic purposes. The escalating levels of these drugs have prompted the need for proper
monitoring of their prevalence in order to stem its social and environmental impacts.
9 Fate of Pharmaceutical Drugs and Metabolites in the Environment
279