Chapter 9
Fate of Pharmaceutical Drugs
and Metabolites in the Environment
Aliru Olajide Mustapha
Contents
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
9.2 Pharmaceutical Occurrence in Aqueous Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9.3 Abused Pharmaceuticals (Illicit Drugs) in Aqueous Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
9.3.1 Cocaine Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.3.2 Amphetamine Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9.3.3 Opiate Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.3.4 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.3.5 Cannabinoid Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.4 Sewage Treatment Works as Transport Routes of Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
9.5 Microbial Degradation of Compounds in the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
9.6 Analytical Methodologies for Pharmaceuticals Residues in Wastewaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.7 Pharmaceuticals and Metabolites Detected in Nottingham Sewage Treatment Work
Effluent . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 293
9.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Abstract
1. Issues/Problems
In recent years, there have been global concerns about the emerging levels of
abused drugs (cocaine, opioid, cannabinoid, amphetamine, lysergic diethylamide
and hallucinogen) apart from pharmaceuticals, dyes, solvents, pesticides, heavy
metals and chemicals from industrial wastes and direct dumping of other contaminants to the aquatic environment. The escalating levels of these pollutants have
prompted the need for proper monitoring of their prevalence in order to stem its
A. O. Mustapha (*)
Department of Chemical, Geological and Physical Sciences, Faculty of Pure and Applied
Sciences, Kwara State University Malete, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria
e-mail: aliru.mustapha@kwasu.edu.ng
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
Inamuddin et al. (eds.), Water Pollution and Remediation: Organic Pollutants,
Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World 54,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52395-4_9
277
Fate of Pharmaceutical Drugs
and Metabolites in the Environment
Aliru Olajide Mustapha
Contents
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
9.2 Pharmaceutical Occurrence in Aqueous Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9.3 Abused Pharmaceuticals (Illicit Drugs) in Aqueous Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
9.3.1 Cocaine Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.3.2 Amphetamine Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9.3.3 Opiate Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.3.4 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.3.5 Cannabinoid Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.4 Sewage Treatment Works as Transport Routes of Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
9.5 Microbial Degradation of Compounds in the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
9.6 Analytical Methodologies for Pharmaceuticals Residues in Wastewaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.7 Pharmaceuticals and Metabolites Detected in Nottingham Sewage Treatment Work
Effluent . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 293
9.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Abstract
1. Issues/Problems
In recent years, there have been global concerns about the emerging levels of
abused drugs (cocaine, opioid, cannabinoid, amphetamine, lysergic diethylamide
and hallucinogen) apart from pharmaceuticals, dyes, solvents, pesticides, heavy
metals and chemicals from industrial wastes and direct dumping of other contaminants to the aquatic environment. The escalating levels of these pollutants have
prompted the need for proper monitoring of their prevalence in order to stem its
A. O. Mustapha (*)
Department of Chemical, Geological and Physical Sciences, Faculty of Pure and Applied
Sciences, Kwara State University Malete, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria
e-mail: aliru.mustapha@kwasu.edu.ng
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
Inamuddin et al. (eds.), Water Pollution and Remediation: Organic Pollutants,
Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World 54,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52395-4_9
277