determined by DNA damage and alteration in enzyme activities in various organisms
(Halling-Sorensen 2000; Stuart et al. 2012).
In farmland soil, many metabolic processes in microorganisms could be affected
or disrupted by antibiotics, such as nitrogen fixation and nutrients fluxes (Larsson
2014). The microorganisms in wastewater treatment plants showed a pattern of
flexibility to overcome antibiotic hazards, mostly by horizontal gene transfer and
their ability to accumulate mutations, because the concentration of residual drugs
and their exposure route is quite different (Larsson 2014). The most important issue
about the risk of antibiotics in the environment is the development of antibiotic
resistance of pathogens in human and animals (Kümmerer 2004). Antibiotic resistance bacteria confer their resistance mainly from the environment rather than other
sources, as the external environment creates a reservoir for resistance genes and
provides a chance for genetic recombination other than in the pathogens inside the
body. Misuse of antibiotics, wrong disposal through the aquatic environment,
insufficient treatment of wastewater and sludge make the dissemination of resistance
genes more frequent (Ashbolt et al. 2013). The occurrence of antibiotics in the
environment is likely to have a toxic effect on the biota, for example, ciprofloxacin
and ofloxacin were showed to be in fresh water with high concentration and can have
most potent effect even at low concentration (Feitosa-Felizzola and Chiron 2009;
Bengtsson-Palme and Larsson 2016).
Ciprofloxacin in fresh water with concentration of 5 μg L
À1 inhibited the growth
of cyanobacteria Mycrocystisaeruginosa (Robinson et al. 2005) and Vibrio fischeri
and the algae Psuedokirchunellasubcapitataat concentrations of 0.9 μg L
À1 and
4.47 μg L
À1 , respectively. To some extent, some antibiotics target the intracellular
components of plant cells, as tetracycline, fluoroquinolones, and macrolides target
the chloroplast and inhibit the mitochondrial protein synthesis (Brain et al. 2008);
fluoroquinolones, in particular, have a negative effect on the morphology and
photosynthesis in plant (Aritstilde et al. 2010). Tetracycline is able to cause chromosomal aberration and has toxic effect on photosynthesis and growth (Xie et al.
2011). Similarly, β-lactam antibiotics have slightly affected on plants such as rice
(Oryzasativa L), carrot (Daucuscarota L.), and Chainese cabbage (B. chinesis L.)
(Grewal et al. 2006; Grzebelus and Skop 2014; Meng et al. 2014). Furthermore, the
reductions in photosynthetic pigments, carotenoid, and chlorophylls were also
caused by tetracyclin, erythromycin, and ciprofloxacin (Pomati et al. 2004; Quanten
et al. 2007; Yaronskaya et al. 2007; Hillis et al. 2011). Ciprofloxacin strongly
inhibits the net assimilation rate of foliage (Triticum aestivum) (Opris et al. 2013).
3.6 Conclusions
Pharmaceutical compounds are known to be important for human life and welfare
and economy in modern communities, but contamination by antibiotics has been
detected worldwide in natural environment (aquatic, soil, animal, and plant). However, antibiotics play a role in evolving the biological effects, which were estimated
58
H. H. Al-Haideri et al.
(Halling-Sorensen 2000; Stuart et al. 2012).
In farmland soil, many metabolic processes in microorganisms could be affected
or disrupted by antibiotics, such as nitrogen fixation and nutrients fluxes (Larsson
2014). The microorganisms in wastewater treatment plants showed a pattern of
flexibility to overcome antibiotic hazards, mostly by horizontal gene transfer and
their ability to accumulate mutations, because the concentration of residual drugs
and their exposure route is quite different (Larsson 2014). The most important issue
about the risk of antibiotics in the environment is the development of antibiotic
resistance of pathogens in human and animals (Kümmerer 2004). Antibiotic resistance bacteria confer their resistance mainly from the environment rather than other
sources, as the external environment creates a reservoir for resistance genes and
provides a chance for genetic recombination other than in the pathogens inside the
body. Misuse of antibiotics, wrong disposal through the aquatic environment,
insufficient treatment of wastewater and sludge make the dissemination of resistance
genes more frequent (Ashbolt et al. 2013). The occurrence of antibiotics in the
environment is likely to have a toxic effect on the biota, for example, ciprofloxacin
and ofloxacin were showed to be in fresh water with high concentration and can have
most potent effect even at low concentration (Feitosa-Felizzola and Chiron 2009;
Bengtsson-Palme and Larsson 2016).
Ciprofloxacin in fresh water with concentration of 5 μg L
À1 inhibited the growth
of cyanobacteria Mycrocystisaeruginosa (Robinson et al. 2005) and Vibrio fischeri
and the algae Psuedokirchunellasubcapitataat concentrations of 0.9 μg L
À1 and
4.47 μg L
À1 , respectively. To some extent, some antibiotics target the intracellular
components of plant cells, as tetracycline, fluoroquinolones, and macrolides target
the chloroplast and inhibit the mitochondrial protein synthesis (Brain et al. 2008);
fluoroquinolones, in particular, have a negative effect on the morphology and
photosynthesis in plant (Aritstilde et al. 2010). Tetracycline is able to cause chromosomal aberration and has toxic effect on photosynthesis and growth (Xie et al.
2011). Similarly, β-lactam antibiotics have slightly affected on plants such as rice
(Oryzasativa L), carrot (Daucuscarota L.), and Chainese cabbage (B. chinesis L.)
(Grewal et al. 2006; Grzebelus and Skop 2014; Meng et al. 2014). Furthermore, the
reductions in photosynthetic pigments, carotenoid, and chlorophylls were also
caused by tetracyclin, erythromycin, and ciprofloxacin (Pomati et al. 2004; Quanten
et al. 2007; Yaronskaya et al. 2007; Hillis et al. 2011). Ciprofloxacin strongly
inhibits the net assimilation rate of foliage (Triticum aestivum) (Opris et al. 2013).
3.6 Conclusions
Pharmaceutical compounds are known to be important for human life and welfare
and economy in modern communities, but contamination by antibiotics has been
detected worldwide in natural environment (aquatic, soil, animal, and plant). However, antibiotics play a role in evolving the biological effects, which were estimated
58
H. H. Al-Haideri et al.