(Fick et al. 2009) and 72 chemical compounds and 23 transformation products were
present in the groundwater; all were from the WWTPs influent. Among pharmaceuticals, ciprofloxacin was detected with high relative concentration of 32.75 ng L
À1 ,
probably from agricultural purposes or/and insufficient water treatment (Cabeza
et al. 2008). On the other side in Catalonia, 18 types of sulfonamide were detected
with concentration ranging from 0.01 to 3460.57 ng L
À1 , mainly from livestock
fertilizer (Garcia-Galan et al. 2010; Jurado et al. 2012).
Many studies have reported that groundwater contains not only antibiotics, but
also pesticides, hormones, industrial compounds, and some personal care products,
with much lower concentrations than found in WWTPs and rivers (Barnes et al.
2008; Cabeza et al. 2008; Garcia-Galan et al. 2010; Hu et al. 2010; Lapworth et al.
2012). The occurrence of pharmaceutical compounds in groundwater is reported by
many researchers, and contamination is probably from landfill, insufficient treatment
of wastewater, and to incorrect disposal of wastes from pharmaceutical factories and
hospitals (Schwarzbauer et al. 2002; Asano and Cotruvo 2004). Some of the
pharmaceutical compounds including antibiotics released into the water bodies and
develop resistance power in the microorganism against other antimicrobial drugs
(Voulvoulis et al. 2013; Sui et al. 2015). The physicochemical properties of some
pharmaceutical compounds as well as the ecological properties of different water
bodies controlled the persistence and occurrence of some pharmaceuticals (Gurr and
Reinhard 2006; Liu et al. 2011). Some medicinal compounds need long time to be
degraded by metabolic action within a patient, which suggests the potential accumulation of such compounds in animal tissue. Therefore, the bioaccumulation of
pharmaceuticals and their potential is another factor for aquifers contamination (Lai
et al. 2002).
Some of but not all pharmaceutical compounds discharged into the groundwater
and get adsorbed into a solid phase like biota, sediments, or suspended solid
particles, but the adsorption rate depends upon chemical properties of these compounds (Lai et al. 2000; Jones et al. 2002). A summary of some classes of antibiotics
present in different environmental compartments is listed in Table 3.2.
3.4.5 Existence in Plant and Aquatic Animals
The pharmaceutical compounds from water compartment move to crops, vegetables,
aquatic plants, and animals (Eggen et al. 2011; Dong et al. 2012; Na et al. 2013). In
Napoli, ciprofloxacin was found to be accumulated in root of carrot (Daucus spp.)
and barley (Hordeum vulgare), with bioaccumulation factor ˂1 higher than that of
leaf (Eggen et al. 2011). The uptake ability of plant compartment is different from
part to part. In a study, Hu et al. (2010) reported the sequence of accumulation factor
of antibiotics as root ˂ stem˂ leaf, and also attributed this variation to seasonal
changes. In winter, bioaccumulation of antibiotics is more than summer. For
instance, oxytetracycline, tetracycline, and chlortetracycline were bioaccumulated
in coriander leaves at very high level in winter, with relative concentration ranges
3 Existence of Antibiotics in Wastewater as a Pollution Indicator
53
present in the groundwater; all were from the WWTPs influent. Among pharmaceuticals, ciprofloxacin was detected with high relative concentration of 32.75 ng L
À1 ,
probably from agricultural purposes or/and insufficient water treatment (Cabeza
et al. 2008). On the other side in Catalonia, 18 types of sulfonamide were detected
with concentration ranging from 0.01 to 3460.57 ng L
À1 , mainly from livestock
fertilizer (Garcia-Galan et al. 2010; Jurado et al. 2012).
Many studies have reported that groundwater contains not only antibiotics, but
also pesticides, hormones, industrial compounds, and some personal care products,
with much lower concentrations than found in WWTPs and rivers (Barnes et al.
2008; Cabeza et al. 2008; Garcia-Galan et al. 2010; Hu et al. 2010; Lapworth et al.
2012). The occurrence of pharmaceutical compounds in groundwater is reported by
many researchers, and contamination is probably from landfill, insufficient treatment
of wastewater, and to incorrect disposal of wastes from pharmaceutical factories and
hospitals (Schwarzbauer et al. 2002; Asano and Cotruvo 2004). Some of the
pharmaceutical compounds including antibiotics released into the water bodies and
develop resistance power in the microorganism against other antimicrobial drugs
(Voulvoulis et al. 2013; Sui et al. 2015). The physicochemical properties of some
pharmaceutical compounds as well as the ecological properties of different water
bodies controlled the persistence and occurrence of some pharmaceuticals (Gurr and
Reinhard 2006; Liu et al. 2011). Some medicinal compounds need long time to be
degraded by metabolic action within a patient, which suggests the potential accumulation of such compounds in animal tissue. Therefore, the bioaccumulation of
pharmaceuticals and their potential is another factor for aquifers contamination (Lai
et al. 2002).
Some of but not all pharmaceutical compounds discharged into the groundwater
and get adsorbed into a solid phase like biota, sediments, or suspended solid
particles, but the adsorption rate depends upon chemical properties of these compounds (Lai et al. 2000; Jones et al. 2002). A summary of some classes of antibiotics
present in different environmental compartments is listed in Table 3.2.
3.4.5 Existence in Plant and Aquatic Animals
The pharmaceutical compounds from water compartment move to crops, vegetables,
aquatic plants, and animals (Eggen et al. 2011; Dong et al. 2012; Na et al. 2013). In
Napoli, ciprofloxacin was found to be accumulated in root of carrot (Daucus spp.)
and barley (Hordeum vulgare), with bioaccumulation factor ˂1 higher than that of
leaf (Eggen et al. 2011). The uptake ability of plant compartment is different from
part to part. In a study, Hu et al. (2010) reported the sequence of accumulation factor
of antibiotics as root ˂ stem˂ leaf, and also attributed this variation to seasonal
changes. In winter, bioaccumulation of antibiotics is more than summer. For
instance, oxytetracycline, tetracycline, and chlortetracycline were bioaccumulated
in coriander leaves at very high level in winter, with relative concentration ranges
3 Existence of Antibiotics in Wastewater as a Pollution Indicator
53