infrastructures. These practices increase the impervious surface such as roads,
sidewalks, rooftops and parking lots and that lead to more transportation of the
pollutants from landscape into the water bodies (Wilson and Weng 2010). Along
with this, agricultural runoff also discharges extra amount of nutrients, pesticides,
and herbicides into the nearest water bodies. These changes lead to eutrophication of
water bodies and create suitable conditions for algal bloom and phytoplankton
biomass, that consequently impair odor and taste of water (Tsegaye et al. 2006;
Zhang et al. 2013). The higher content of suspended solids increases the turbidity of
water, which lessen penetration of light and affects the growth of fish and other
aquatic animals (Giri 2013).
Land use patterns in certain areas influence river water systems through non-point
pollutants, which pose a significant risk to water quality, particularly in residential
areas (Jia et al. 2013). Furthermore, natural landscapes have been fragmented and
transformed into impervious areas, which often lead to a surge in surface runoff.
These continuous transformations alter the hydrological processes and increase the
load of pollutants to the river bodies (Barbosa et al. 2012). Water quality variables
have been strongly related to the configuration and proportion of land uses inside the
multiple areas, due to variations in the types of pollutants released (Schoonover and
Lockaby 2006).
Similarly, the relation between landscape patterns and water quality deterioration
is considered a pattern-process relationship, in which energy, nutrients, and material
in a landscape are influenced by permeability, connectivity, aggregation, and configuration (Mitchell et al. 2013). Several studies have highlighted the impact of
landscape patterns on water chemistry and quality variation, and the significance of
landscape features on stream health (Beckert et al. 2011; Zhang et al. 2013; Griffith
2002; Rothwell et al. 2010). Griffith (2002) even mentioned that the association
between landscapes and water quality is area-specific and non-stationary and above
all complex; still, there has been a notable correlation among water quality variables
and landscape metrics within watersheds (Buck et al. 2004). The spatial structure of
landscapes in particular is essential for assessing the connection between landscape
and water quality at different scales (Alberti et al. 2007). Furthermore, landscape
composition and configuration might be a key factor that has some impacts on
hydrological processes, chemical cycles, energy flows, and natural habitats (Mitchell
et al. 2013).
2.2 Impact of Urban and Agricultural Runoff
on River Water
Urban areas occupy only a small percentage of the earth’s surface. Still, they are
home to well over half of the world’s population (UN 2018). The surge in urban
growth prompted scientists to study the impacts of landscape change on hydrological
dynamics. Researchers focused on evaluating catchment response to urban
20
N. R. Jamil and Z. N. Shehab
sidewalks, rooftops and parking lots and that lead to more transportation of the
pollutants from landscape into the water bodies (Wilson and Weng 2010). Along
with this, agricultural runoff also discharges extra amount of nutrients, pesticides,
and herbicides into the nearest water bodies. These changes lead to eutrophication of
water bodies and create suitable conditions for algal bloom and phytoplankton
biomass, that consequently impair odor and taste of water (Tsegaye et al. 2006;
Zhang et al. 2013). The higher content of suspended solids increases the turbidity of
water, which lessen penetration of light and affects the growth of fish and other
aquatic animals (Giri 2013).
Land use patterns in certain areas influence river water systems through non-point
pollutants, which pose a significant risk to water quality, particularly in residential
areas (Jia et al. 2013). Furthermore, natural landscapes have been fragmented and
transformed into impervious areas, which often lead to a surge in surface runoff.
These continuous transformations alter the hydrological processes and increase the
load of pollutants to the river bodies (Barbosa et al. 2012). Water quality variables
have been strongly related to the configuration and proportion of land uses inside the
multiple areas, due to variations in the types of pollutants released (Schoonover and
Lockaby 2006).
Similarly, the relation between landscape patterns and water quality deterioration
is considered a pattern-process relationship, in which energy, nutrients, and material
in a landscape are influenced by permeability, connectivity, aggregation, and configuration (Mitchell et al. 2013). Several studies have highlighted the impact of
landscape patterns on water chemistry and quality variation, and the significance of
landscape features on stream health (Beckert et al. 2011; Zhang et al. 2013; Griffith
2002; Rothwell et al. 2010). Griffith (2002) even mentioned that the association
between landscapes and water quality is area-specific and non-stationary and above
all complex; still, there has been a notable correlation among water quality variables
and landscape metrics within watersheds (Buck et al. 2004). The spatial structure of
landscapes in particular is essential for assessing the connection between landscape
and water quality at different scales (Alberti et al. 2007). Furthermore, landscape
composition and configuration might be a key factor that has some impacts on
hydrological processes, chemical cycles, energy flows, and natural habitats (Mitchell
et al. 2013).
2.2 Impact of Urban and Agricultural Runoff
on River Water
Urban areas occupy only a small percentage of the earth’s surface. Still, they are
home to well over half of the world’s population (UN 2018). The surge in urban
growth prompted scientists to study the impacts of landscape change on hydrological
dynamics. Researchers focused on evaluating catchment response to urban
20
N. R. Jamil and Z. N. Shehab