62
2013), and brown plant hopper (Nilaparvata lugens) (Wang et al. 2010) population
due to insecticide/pesticide resistance. To control locusts and grasshoppers, pesticides are sprayed on a large scale often in the habitats outside of the croplands;
therefore, avian fauna that rummages ahead of cultivated land may also be prone
to the toxicant (Dong et al. 2016). As for example, North American Grasshopper
hawks (Buteo swainsoni) that prefer insects of Acrididae family (locusts, grasshoppers) as their food are more vulnerable to poisoning because of targeting pest
outbreaks in agricultural crops (Mineau et al. 1999). Grasshopper control in
Argentina by organophosphate and monocrotophos exterminated nearly 5000
grasshopper hawks during the arid summer of 1995–1996 (Goldstein et al. 1999).
Pesticide application targeting pest outbreaks poses more risk to bird species than
normal preventive use.
3.2.3 Crop Species Raising the Possibilities of Exposure
Cultivation of some specific crop species may hike the liabilities of pesticide
exposure to birds (UNEP/CMS/SCC18/Inf.10.9.1, 2014). Pesticides of particular
forms (granular/liquid form) and frequent or higher quantities of applications
related to cultivation practices that are required for protection of some crops are
more vulnerable for birds. Further, some crop types attract birds with higher foraging areas, food source, or other resources. Rice is one of the best examples that
has the highest cumulative risk to birds than other crops. Parsons et al. (2010)
reported that in the USA, pesticide treatments for rice cultivation cause death of
water birds. Again, paddy field provides attractive winter sojourn and migratory
halt sites for shorebirds, posing a high risk of exposure to organophosphate and
carbamates. Eventually, the pesticide contamination probability to birds is increasing worldwide due to decrease in natural wetlands and ecosystems (Strum
et al. 2008).
3.2.4 Formulation of Pesticides Increasing the Risk
of Exposure
Particulate Forms
Granular formulations (grit types) of pesticides are more farmers’ friendly (than liquid concentrates or powders) as they are easy to apply, highly concentrated, and target specific and have higher retention capacity in the fields (Best 1995). Consumption
of natural grit is common to many bird species (especially for granivores and insectivores), as grit assists in grinding the hard foods such as seeds and hard animal parts
in gizzard. Granivorous birds like sparrows, finches, and parrots searching for pebbles may consume granular pesticides primarily through incorporation along with
A. Mitra et al.
2013), and brown plant hopper (Nilaparvata lugens) (Wang et al. 2010) population
due to insecticide/pesticide resistance. To control locusts and grasshoppers, pesticides are sprayed on a large scale often in the habitats outside of the croplands;
therefore, avian fauna that rummages ahead of cultivated land may also be prone
to the toxicant (Dong et al. 2016). As for example, North American Grasshopper
hawks (Buteo swainsoni) that prefer insects of Acrididae family (locusts, grasshoppers) as their food are more vulnerable to poisoning because of targeting pest
outbreaks in agricultural crops (Mineau et al. 1999). Grasshopper control in
Argentina by organophosphate and monocrotophos exterminated nearly 5000
grasshopper hawks during the arid summer of 1995–1996 (Goldstein et al. 1999).
Pesticide application targeting pest outbreaks poses more risk to bird species than
normal preventive use.
3.2.3 Crop Species Raising the Possibilities of Exposure
Cultivation of some specific crop species may hike the liabilities of pesticide
exposure to birds (UNEP/CMS/SCC18/Inf.10.9.1, 2014). Pesticides of particular
forms (granular/liquid form) and frequent or higher quantities of applications
related to cultivation practices that are required for protection of some crops are
more vulnerable for birds. Further, some crop types attract birds with higher foraging areas, food source, or other resources. Rice is one of the best examples that
has the highest cumulative risk to birds than other crops. Parsons et al. (2010)
reported that in the USA, pesticide treatments for rice cultivation cause death of
water birds. Again, paddy field provides attractive winter sojourn and migratory
halt sites for shorebirds, posing a high risk of exposure to organophosphate and
carbamates. Eventually, the pesticide contamination probability to birds is increasing worldwide due to decrease in natural wetlands and ecosystems (Strum
et al. 2008).
3.2.4 Formulation of Pesticides Increasing the Risk
of Exposure
Particulate Forms
Granular formulations (grit types) of pesticides are more farmers’ friendly (than liquid concentrates or powders) as they are easy to apply, highly concentrated, and target specific and have higher retention capacity in the fields (Best 1995). Consumption
of natural grit is common to many bird species (especially for granivores and insectivores), as grit assists in grinding the hard foods such as seeds and hard animal parts
in gizzard. Granivorous birds like sparrows, finches, and parrots searching for pebbles may consume granular pesticides primarily through incorporation along with
A. Mitra et al.