60
org/sowb/sowbpubs#SOWB2004). Studies support the activity of cholinesterase
inhibitors inducing increased death of predatory and granivorous birds (such as
Neotropical migrants, raptors, passerine, and crane) (Eisler 1985; Agriculture
Canada 1993; Mineau 1993, 2005; Mineau et al. 1999; Pain et al. 2004; Mineau and
Palmer 2013). Nonetheless, the study of pesticide-induced death of birds is difficult
for the authors due to elusive nature of birds, as birds may be exposed and then
migrate too far from the exposed areas and may die elsewhere or are consumed by
scavengers (Hussain et al. 2011; Mitra et al. 2011).
Most current problems of avian acute toxicity due to pesticides stem from the
illegal use of the banned pesticide (Mineau and Whiteside 2006) in many countries.
The programme organized by FAO (The United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization) made aware the developing countries in the Middle East as well as
Africa about the risks associated with outdated pesticide stocks and how they can be
and what they can do about them; additionally, the Prevention and Disposal of
Obsolete Pesticides programme organized by FAO also supports the states in discharging the stockpiles and hindering the reaccretion of banned pesticides (FAO
2013). As reported by Mansour (2009), most of the African countries have effectively or partly eradicated enormous quantities of persistent pesticides; still, Ethiopia
authorizes one of the eminent reserves of banned pesticides (according to a report
of FAO, 2013). In Yemen, up to 70% of pesticides are illegally imported for application on fruit and vegetable crops, specifically the qat tree (Catha edulis) (UN Office
for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 2007). Indeed, the highest amount of
pesticides is sprayed in qat cropping areas in comparison to other vegetable crops
promoting birds toward higher exposure and intoxication. This review aims to comprehend the up-to-date information on the succession of the anthropogenic use of
pesticides and likelihood of the exposure to the avian fauna and their consequences
on selected bird populations, emphasizing organophosphate and carbamates in
particular.
3.2 Likelihood of Exposure
Different components like form of cultivation and nature of crop, types of pest,
nature of pesticide and their forms, and food habits of birds are responsible for probable exposure pathways to pesticides. Probability of exposure to pesticides also
depends on bird’s ecology related to diet, foraging activities, habitat preferences,
and migration behaviour (BLI 2013). Rather than the diet preferences or daily intake
rate, foraging location is more important to influence exposure of birds to pesticides
(Corson et al. 1998). Birds that search for food near agricultural areas are at higher
risk for pesticide exposure rather than the birds that rummage more intermittently in
grassland areas (usually, no insecticide is applied in that area) (BLI 2014).
A. Mitra et al.
org/sowb/sowbpubs#SOWB2004). Studies support the activity of cholinesterase
inhibitors inducing increased death of predatory and granivorous birds (such as
Neotropical migrants, raptors, passerine, and crane) (Eisler 1985; Agriculture
Canada 1993; Mineau 1993, 2005; Mineau et al. 1999; Pain et al. 2004; Mineau and
Palmer 2013). Nonetheless, the study of pesticide-induced death of birds is difficult
for the authors due to elusive nature of birds, as birds may be exposed and then
migrate too far from the exposed areas and may die elsewhere or are consumed by
scavengers (Hussain et al. 2011; Mitra et al. 2011).
Most current problems of avian acute toxicity due to pesticides stem from the
illegal use of the banned pesticide (Mineau and Whiteside 2006) in many countries.
The programme organized by FAO (The United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization) made aware the developing countries in the Middle East as well as
Africa about the risks associated with outdated pesticide stocks and how they can be
and what they can do about them; additionally, the Prevention and Disposal of
Obsolete Pesticides programme organized by FAO also supports the states in discharging the stockpiles and hindering the reaccretion of banned pesticides (FAO
2013). As reported by Mansour (2009), most of the African countries have effectively or partly eradicated enormous quantities of persistent pesticides; still, Ethiopia
authorizes one of the eminent reserves of banned pesticides (according to a report
of FAO, 2013). In Yemen, up to 70% of pesticides are illegally imported for application on fruit and vegetable crops, specifically the qat tree (Catha edulis) (UN Office
for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs 2007). Indeed, the highest amount of
pesticides is sprayed in qat cropping areas in comparison to other vegetable crops
promoting birds toward higher exposure and intoxication. This review aims to comprehend the up-to-date information on the succession of the anthropogenic use of
pesticides and likelihood of the exposure to the avian fauna and their consequences
on selected bird populations, emphasizing organophosphate and carbamates in
particular.
3.2 Likelihood of Exposure
Different components like form of cultivation and nature of crop, types of pest,
nature of pesticide and their forms, and food habits of birds are responsible for probable exposure pathways to pesticides. Probability of exposure to pesticides also
depends on bird’s ecology related to diet, foraging activities, habitat preferences,
and migration behaviour (BLI 2013). Rather than the diet preferences or daily intake
rate, foraging location is more important to influence exposure of birds to pesticides
(Corson et al. 1998). Birds that search for food near agricultural areas are at higher
risk for pesticide exposure rather than the birds that rummage more intermittently in
grassland areas (usually, no insecticide is applied in that area) (BLI 2014).
A. Mitra et al.