410
A. P. Ingle et al.
antioxidant agent, volatile ingredients retainer, stability and taste enhancer, as well
as ensuring ingredient continuous delivery (Hamad et al. 2017). As nanocapsules
are capable of carrying components through digestive system, they may resist the
stomach acid attacks and are being employed in the delivery of lipophilic health
supplements, vitamins, and minerals (Maftoonazad and Ramaswamy, 2018; Xiong
et al., 2020). In fact, nanoencapsulation packs substances in miniature making use
of techniques such as nanocomposite, nano-emulsification, and nano-structuration,
and provides final product functionality that includes controlled release of the core
(Sekhon 2010).
Several food-grade ingredients can be nano-encapsulated, such as essential oils
(Cui et al. 2017; Hussein et al. 2020), chitosan (Palacio et al. 2020), polyphenols
(Chen et al. 2020), some organic acids (Sandhir et al. 2015), vitamins (Khayata et al.
2012) for increasing bioavailability of foods. Although the encapsulation of these
substances improves not only bioavailability, stability as it controls the release of
substance, but also reduces odor and unwanted taste of the compound (Maftoonazad
and Ramaswamy 2018). Nanocapsules can be also employed for the development
of biodegradable sensors, controlling the temperature and humidity on food, as well
as for the development of nano-films which prevents the contact with oxygen that
causes food spoilage (He and Hwang 2016; Carrillo-Inungaray et al. 2018).
3.2 Food Packaging
Packaging systems are very important in the food supply chain as they serve as
food containers during the transport, preventing damages and improving shelf life,
safety, and quality of the food (Vilela et al. 2018; Yildirim et al. 2018). However,
since conventional packaging methods cannot effectively prevent damages caused
by biological and physical–chemical factors (e.g., microbial growth, oxidation, light,
and moisture), active packaging materials are used for improving quality, safety, and
shelf life of foods (Khaneghah et al. 2018a).
3.2.1 Active Food Packaging Systems
Nanotechnology is a growing tendency in the food industry and plays an important
role in the development of active packaging (AP) systems. AP nanomaterials are
usually composed of metals, essential oils, biopolymers, organic acids, plant extracts,
sugars, and enzymes, but their compositions vary according to their active functions.
Moreover, nanomaterials can act as nanocarriers for delivering bioactive compounds
(Bahrami et al. 2019). Furthermore, biodegradable AP materials can replace plastic
packaging and reduce environmental impacts, since micro- and nano-plastics enter
the food chain and cause serious disturbance in the ecosystem (Pandey et al. 2020).
AP materials can be divided according to their active functions in emitters (e.g.,
antimicrobial, antioxidants, and CO 2 ) and scavengers/absorbers (e.g., O 2 , moisture,
A. P. Ingle et al.
antioxidant agent, volatile ingredients retainer, stability and taste enhancer, as well
as ensuring ingredient continuous delivery (Hamad et al. 2017). As nanocapsules
are capable of carrying components through digestive system, they may resist the
stomach acid attacks and are being employed in the delivery of lipophilic health
supplements, vitamins, and minerals (Maftoonazad and Ramaswamy, 2018; Xiong
et al., 2020). In fact, nanoencapsulation packs substances in miniature making use
of techniques such as nanocomposite, nano-emulsification, and nano-structuration,
and provides final product functionality that includes controlled release of the core
(Sekhon 2010).
Several food-grade ingredients can be nano-encapsulated, such as essential oils
(Cui et al. 2017; Hussein et al. 2020), chitosan (Palacio et al. 2020), polyphenols
(Chen et al. 2020), some organic acids (Sandhir et al. 2015), vitamins (Khayata et al.
2012) for increasing bioavailability of foods. Although the encapsulation of these
substances improves not only bioavailability, stability as it controls the release of
substance, but also reduces odor and unwanted taste of the compound (Maftoonazad
and Ramaswamy 2018). Nanocapsules can be also employed for the development
of biodegradable sensors, controlling the temperature and humidity on food, as well
as for the development of nano-films which prevents the contact with oxygen that
causes food spoilage (He and Hwang 2016; Carrillo-Inungaray et al. 2018).
3.2 Food Packaging
Packaging systems are very important in the food supply chain as they serve as
food containers during the transport, preventing damages and improving shelf life,
safety, and quality of the food (Vilela et al. 2018; Yildirim et al. 2018). However,
since conventional packaging methods cannot effectively prevent damages caused
by biological and physical–chemical factors (e.g., microbial growth, oxidation, light,
and moisture), active packaging materials are used for improving quality, safety, and
shelf life of foods (Khaneghah et al. 2018a).
3.2.1 Active Food Packaging Systems
Nanotechnology is a growing tendency in the food industry and plays an important
role in the development of active packaging (AP) systems. AP nanomaterials are
usually composed of metals, essential oils, biopolymers, organic acids, plant extracts,
sugars, and enzymes, but their compositions vary according to their active functions.
Moreover, nanomaterials can act as nanocarriers for delivering bioactive compounds
(Bahrami et al. 2019). Furthermore, biodegradable AP materials can replace plastic
packaging and reduce environmental impacts, since micro- and nano-plastics enter
the food chain and cause serious disturbance in the ecosystem (Pandey et al. 2020).
AP materials can be divided according to their active functions in emitters (e.g.,
antimicrobial, antioxidants, and CO 2 ) and scavengers/absorbers (e.g., O 2 , moisture,