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various applications that include nanosensors as well, and in addition to their chemically manufactured possibility, they are efficiently biosynthesized by the action
of many microorganisms. It is used to manufacture some nanosensors that can
detect pathogenic bacteria (e.g., magnetic nanoparticle-urease nanosensors) (Sun
et al. 2018), some antibiotics, e.g., Kanamycin (Chen et al. 2013), or some heavy
metals, e.g., Hg (II) (Yang et al. 2012). To detect and measure herbicides, e.g., 2,4dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), Fe 3 O 4 magnetic NPs have been incorporated in
alkaline phosphatase into a “sol gel/chitosan biosensor membrane” (Loh et al. 2008).
Gold NPs have been reported as an ingredient to manufacture nanosensors to detect
the herbicide glyphosate. This nano-biosensor was prepared by “electrochemically
depositing poly(2,5-dimethoxyaniline) (PDMA) doped with poly(4-styrenesulfonic
acid) (PSS) onto the surface of a gold electrode followed by electrostatic attachment
of the enzyme HRP onto the PDMA-PSS composite film” (Songa et al. 2009; Matter
et al. 2020). Silver nanoparticles that have wide usage applications have been used to
manufacturethe sensing surface of an optical fiber sensor with “a layer of tantalum(V)
oxide nanoparticles sequestered in a nano–scaled matrix of reduced graphene oxide”
to detect and determine fenitrothion (the organophosphate pesticide) (Kant 2020).
Many nanocomposites have been used to manufacture nanosensors. For instance,
the “amperometric response nano-biosensor” was prepared by Yang et al. (2013)
to detect some pesticides based on AChE/SiO 2 nanosheet–Nafio nanocomposites
with chitosan as a cross-linker. This nano-biosensor based on AChE inhibition by
pesticides, i.e., methyl parathion, chlorpyrifos, and carbofuran detected the pesticides
at low concentrations (1.0 × 10
−12 to 1 × 10
−8 M). Parallel to the developments
in sensing and bio-sensing techniques, there is also a development in the biogenic
synthesis of nanomaterials which led to improved efficacy, rapidity and accuracy
of such nano-based sensors/biosensors. Consequently, this development in sensing
techniques is a step towards the development of risk assessment followed by proper
treatment for environmentally hazardous materials; hence, it is an important step
towards environmental sustainability.
4.3 Application of Microbial-Synthesized NPs in Wastes
Recycling
In addition to reducing waste production from various agricultural and industrial
activities, the application of nanotechnology can assist in the recycling of harmful
wastes. Waste recycling helps to introduce beneficial products (from low-value
wastes) and thus reduces dependence on limited resources, which is an essential
goal of environmental sustainability. As mentioned before, this sustainability could
be maximized when the applied nanoparticles for waste recycling were sustainably
synthesized, e.g., using microbial activities. The abundant agricultural wastes, for
instance, mainly composed from lignocellulosic materials which could be a raw
material to manufacture many useful products such as some furniture and paper.
O. M. Darwesh et al.
various applications that include nanosensors as well, and in addition to their chemically manufactured possibility, they are efficiently biosynthesized by the action
of many microorganisms. It is used to manufacture some nanosensors that can
detect pathogenic bacteria (e.g., magnetic nanoparticle-urease nanosensors) (Sun
et al. 2018), some antibiotics, e.g., Kanamycin (Chen et al. 2013), or some heavy
metals, e.g., Hg (II) (Yang et al. 2012). To detect and measure herbicides, e.g., 2,4dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), Fe 3 O 4 magnetic NPs have been incorporated in
alkaline phosphatase into a “sol gel/chitosan biosensor membrane” (Loh et al. 2008).
Gold NPs have been reported as an ingredient to manufacture nanosensors to detect
the herbicide glyphosate. This nano-biosensor was prepared by “electrochemically
depositing poly(2,5-dimethoxyaniline) (PDMA) doped with poly(4-styrenesulfonic
acid) (PSS) onto the surface of a gold electrode followed by electrostatic attachment
of the enzyme HRP onto the PDMA-PSS composite film” (Songa et al. 2009; Matter
et al. 2020). Silver nanoparticles that have wide usage applications have been used to
manufacturethe sensing surface of an optical fiber sensor with “a layer of tantalum(V)
oxide nanoparticles sequestered in a nano–scaled matrix of reduced graphene oxide”
to detect and determine fenitrothion (the organophosphate pesticide) (Kant 2020).
Many nanocomposites have been used to manufacture nanosensors. For instance,
the “amperometric response nano-biosensor” was prepared by Yang et al. (2013)
to detect some pesticides based on AChE/SiO 2 nanosheet–Nafio nanocomposites
with chitosan as a cross-linker. This nano-biosensor based on AChE inhibition by
pesticides, i.e., methyl parathion, chlorpyrifos, and carbofuran detected the pesticides
at low concentrations (1.0 × 10
−12 to 1 × 10
−8 M). Parallel to the developments
in sensing and bio-sensing techniques, there is also a development in the biogenic
synthesis of nanomaterials which led to improved efficacy, rapidity and accuracy
of such nano-based sensors/biosensors. Consequently, this development in sensing
techniques is a step towards the development of risk assessment followed by proper
treatment for environmentally hazardous materials; hence, it is an important step
towards environmental sustainability.
4.3 Application of Microbial-Synthesized NPs in Wastes
Recycling
In addition to reducing waste production from various agricultural and industrial
activities, the application of nanotechnology can assist in the recycling of harmful
wastes. Waste recycling helps to introduce beneficial products (from low-value
wastes) and thus reduces dependence on limited resources, which is an essential
goal of environmental sustainability. As mentioned before, this sustainability could
be maximized when the applied nanoparticles for waste recycling were sustainably
synthesized, e.g., using microbial activities. The abundant agricultural wastes, for
instance, mainly composed from lignocellulosic materials which could be a raw
material to manufacture many useful products such as some furniture and paper.