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© National Technology & Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC 2021
M. Alston, T. N. Lambert (eds.), Energy-Sustainable Advanced Materials,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57492-5_3
Molten Sodium Batteries
Erik D. Spoerke, Martha M. Gross, Stephen J. Percival, and Leo J. Small
Abstract The rapid growth in demand for electrical energy storage in the twentyfirst century has renewed interest in molten sodium batteries for safe, reliable, typically large format storage. These batteries take advantage of globally abundant
sodium as a key active material in the system, employing solid-state ceramic separators, and utilizing several different cathode chemistries in battery design. This chapter introduces these battery systems, primarily focused on sodium-sulfur and
sodium-nickel chloride (ZEBRA) batteries. It describes the materials chemistries of
the anodes, the separators, and the cathodes of these batteries, highlighting both
virtues and challenges to be overcome with further research and development. It
further highlights new chemistries and materials that may enable key innovations to
battery design that will lower the operational temperatures, improve safety, and
drive down limiting costs of these systems. Ultimately, improvements resulting
from these research and development efforts are expected to expand an already
growing global market for large-scale molten sodium batteries.
Keywords Large format batteries · Molten sodium · High temperature · Sodiumsulfur · Sodium metal halide · ZEBRA · Sodium-air · Molten salt · Solid-state
electrolyte · β”-alumina · NaSICON · Ion conducting glasses · Borates · Ionic
liquids · Sodium battery deployment
1 Introduction
1.1 Brief History
Metallic sodium (Na) batteries, utilizing a molten sodium anode, have been an
active area of research and development since the 1960s. In 1968, the sodium-sulfur
(NaS) battery was patented by Ford Motor company, who was pursuing it as a candidate for automotive applications [1]. The sodium metal halide battery, known
E. D. Spoerke (*) · M. M. Gross · S. J. Percival · L. J. Small
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA
e-mail: edspoer@sandia.gov
© National Technology & Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC 2021
M. Alston, T. N. Lambert (eds.), Energy-Sustainable Advanced Materials,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57492-5_3
Molten Sodium Batteries
Erik D. Spoerke, Martha M. Gross, Stephen J. Percival, and Leo J. Small
Abstract The rapid growth in demand for electrical energy storage in the twentyfirst century has renewed interest in molten sodium batteries for safe, reliable, typically large format storage. These batteries take advantage of globally abundant
sodium as a key active material in the system, employing solid-state ceramic separators, and utilizing several different cathode chemistries in battery design. This chapter introduces these battery systems, primarily focused on sodium-sulfur and
sodium-nickel chloride (ZEBRA) batteries. It describes the materials chemistries of
the anodes, the separators, and the cathodes of these batteries, highlighting both
virtues and challenges to be overcome with further research and development. It
further highlights new chemistries and materials that may enable key innovations to
battery design that will lower the operational temperatures, improve safety, and
drive down limiting costs of these systems. Ultimately, improvements resulting
from these research and development efforts are expected to expand an already
growing global market for large-scale molten sodium batteries.
Keywords Large format batteries · Molten sodium · High temperature · Sodiumsulfur · Sodium metal halide · ZEBRA · Sodium-air · Molten salt · Solid-state
electrolyte · β”-alumina · NaSICON · Ion conducting glasses · Borates · Ionic
liquids · Sodium battery deployment
1 Introduction
1.1 Brief History
Metallic sodium (Na) batteries, utilizing a molten sodium anode, have been an
active area of research and development since the 1960s. In 1968, the sodium-sulfur
(NaS) battery was patented by Ford Motor company, who was pursuing it as a candidate for automotive applications [1]. The sodium metal halide battery, known
E. D. Spoerke (*) · M. M. Gross · S. J. Percival · L. J. Small
Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA
e-mail: edspoer@sandia.gov