46
O. Mahjoub et al.
become problematic since potable water is supplied by the Mahmoudia canal. Water
quality analysis shows that ammonia concentrations exceed permissible limits. Moreover, the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and the Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD) exceed national standards, making them unsuitable for drinking water and
also for irrigation and fisheries (Abdullah and Hussona 2014). According to WHO,
Egypt has one of the highest rates of death related to water pollution, because 95.5%
of Egypt’s population drinks improperly treated water due to poor sanitation and
widespread pollution. Contamination with cyanides represents a threat to human
health in Assiut (Hassan and Farghali 2018). Water quality has also deteriorated
downstream of El-Salam Canal (one of the largest agricultural canals) due to the
polluted water discharged from canal feeders (e.g., the El-Serw and Bahr Hadous
drains) (Assar et al. 2019). Studies on water quality from Qena to Sohag districts
show high concentrations of Pb and to some extent Cd, Cr, As, Cd, Cr, and Pb, making
the water unsuitable for drinking. However, it is likely still suitable for irrigation,
despite high concentrations of As and Cr (Alnazer et al. 2018). Agricultural drainage
water represents the largest amount of wastewater in Egypt flowing into the Nile
River: 4.9% of total water resources. Drainage water and wastewater of domestic,
industrial, and commercial activities mix in the agricultural drains and are reused for
irrigation (Abdel Wahaab and Omar 2011), which represent a threat to consumers of
the resulting crops.
In Morocco, the overall quality of the river basin water shows that almost 50% of
surface and groundwater resources are of fairly good to excellent quality. Therefore,
protection of water quality is a government priority. Morocco started experiencing
quality degradation of its surface and groundwater resources in the early 1990s.
The discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater and the widespread use and
release of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture contributes tremendously to the
pollution of available water sources in the country. At the same time, the population
of Morocco increased three-fold in 50 years, with noticeable rural flight, giving rise
to slums on the borders of urban areas. These populations, with no access to clean
water and sanitation, are exposed to waterborne a disease which affects about 30% of
the population with gastrointestinal infections, malaria, and typhoid. A recent report
of the World Bank and the Institute of Health (2018) highlights that Algeria is one of
the world’s most polluted countries, at the same level as Mexico, China, and India,
resulting in a high rate of mortality. A cholera outbreak in 2018 was caused by the
consumption of polluted water from Sidi Kabir Wadi in Tipaza. The Kebir River was
adversely affected by pollutants and discharge of effluents without any treatment.
Chemical and physical degradation were caused by agricultural and industrial activities; the lack of sanitation was a major polluter (Amamra and Khanchoul 2019). The
evaluation of surface water quality along the Mencha River shows contamination
by domestic sewage water from drains of local suburbs. Leakage from septic tanks
is evident by the presence of fecal contamination registered by several monitoring
stations, with an increasing pollution trend along the river downstream (Krika and
Krika 2017). In Southern Algeria, the quality of water resources is poor, with high
salinity and excessive fluoride concentrations. Meanwhile, groundwater resources in
O. Mahjoub et al.
become problematic since potable water is supplied by the Mahmoudia canal. Water
quality analysis shows that ammonia concentrations exceed permissible limits. Moreover, the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and the Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD) exceed national standards, making them unsuitable for drinking water and
also for irrigation and fisheries (Abdullah and Hussona 2014). According to WHO,
Egypt has one of the highest rates of death related to water pollution, because 95.5%
of Egypt’s population drinks improperly treated water due to poor sanitation and
widespread pollution. Contamination with cyanides represents a threat to human
health in Assiut (Hassan and Farghali 2018). Water quality has also deteriorated
downstream of El-Salam Canal (one of the largest agricultural canals) due to the
polluted water discharged from canal feeders (e.g., the El-Serw and Bahr Hadous
drains) (Assar et al. 2019). Studies on water quality from Qena to Sohag districts
show high concentrations of Pb and to some extent Cd, Cr, As, Cd, Cr, and Pb, making
the water unsuitable for drinking. However, it is likely still suitable for irrigation,
despite high concentrations of As and Cr (Alnazer et al. 2018). Agricultural drainage
water represents the largest amount of wastewater in Egypt flowing into the Nile
River: 4.9% of total water resources. Drainage water and wastewater of domestic,
industrial, and commercial activities mix in the agricultural drains and are reused for
irrigation (Abdel Wahaab and Omar 2011), which represent a threat to consumers of
the resulting crops.
In Morocco, the overall quality of the river basin water shows that almost 50% of
surface and groundwater resources are of fairly good to excellent quality. Therefore,
protection of water quality is a government priority. Morocco started experiencing
quality degradation of its surface and groundwater resources in the early 1990s.
The discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater and the widespread use and
release of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture contributes tremendously to the
pollution of available water sources in the country. At the same time, the population
of Morocco increased three-fold in 50 years, with noticeable rural flight, giving rise
to slums on the borders of urban areas. These populations, with no access to clean
water and sanitation, are exposed to waterborne a disease which affects about 30% of
the population with gastrointestinal infections, malaria, and typhoid. A recent report
of the World Bank and the Institute of Health (2018) highlights that Algeria is one of
the world’s most polluted countries, at the same level as Mexico, China, and India,
resulting in a high rate of mortality. A cholera outbreak in 2018 was caused by the
consumption of polluted water from Sidi Kabir Wadi in Tipaza. The Kebir River was
adversely affected by pollutants and discharge of effluents without any treatment.
Chemical and physical degradation were caused by agricultural and industrial activities; the lack of sanitation was a major polluter (Amamra and Khanchoul 2019). The
evaluation of surface water quality along the Mencha River shows contamination
by domestic sewage water from drains of local suburbs. Leakage from septic tanks
is evident by the presence of fecal contamination registered by several monitoring
stations, with an increasing pollution trend along the river downstream (Krika and
Krika 2017). In Southern Algeria, the quality of water resources is poor, with high
salinity and excessive fluoride concentrations. Meanwhile, groundwater resources in