484
Pipunculidae). Also diverse were hymenopteran parasitoid taxa that consisted of
Stephanoidea (
†
Aptenoperissidae,
†
Myanmarinidae, Stephanidae), Megalyroidea
(Megalyridae), Trigonalyroidea (
†
Mametshidae), Evanioidea (Aulacidae, Evaniidae,
Gasteruptiidae,
†
Othniodellithidae,
†
Praeaulacidae), Proctotrupoidea (Austroniidae,
Diapriidae, Heloridae, Pelecinidae,
†
Peleserphidae,
†
Spathiopterygidae),
Platygastroidea (Platygastridae, Scelionidae), Ceraphronoidea (Ceraphronidae,
Megaspilidae,
†
Stigmaphronidae), Mymarommatoidea (
†
Gallorommatidae,
Mymarommatidae), Serphitoidea (
†
Serphitidae), Chalcidoidea (Chalcidae, indeterminate family, Mymaridae), Ichneumonoidea (Braconidae, Ichneumonidae), and
the aculeate Chrysidoidea (Bethylidae, Chrysididae, Dryinidae, Embolemidae,
Scolebythidae), Vespoidea (Pompilidae, Rhopalosomatidae, Sapygidae,
Sierolomorphidae, Tiphiidae, Vespidae) and Apoidea (Crabronidae, Sphecidae)
(Grimaldi et al. 2002; Ross et al. 2010; Engel et al. 2012a; Cai and Huang 2014; Cai
et al. 2017, 2018; Li et al. 2017a, b, 2018a, b; Ross 2018 and updates) (Table 11.1).
Parasitoid Hymenoptera in the Myanmar Biota numbers 42 families, representing a
third more than that of the earlier Jehol Biota. There are approximately 90
hymenopteran species, about an increase of three times that of the Jehol Biota. The
Myanmar Biota represents a considerable expansion in the number of parasitoid
species, indicating that these deposits record a major parasitoid diversification event
following Phase 2 but before deposition of the Myanmar Biota (Fig. 11.19).
However, some of this increase in Myanmar parasitoid diversity could be attributable to exceptional preservation and a concerted effort to mine, process and expand
tonnages of material sold abroad (Sokol 2019).
The second major deposit of note, also representing Phase 3, is Canadian Amber,
originating from Grassy Lake in southern Alberta, but also occurring at Cedar Lake
in western Manitoba where it is secondarily deposited (McKellar and Wolfe 2010).
The stratigraphic source of the amber at Grassy Lake are six sub-bituminous coal
seams of the Foremost Formation (Pike 1995) that have a late Campanian age,
approximately equivalent to 78–72 Ma (Walker et al. 2013), about 24 million years
after deposition of Myanmar Amber. The source of the amber initially was thought
to be araucariaceous, but plant anatomical and spectroscopic analyses indicate a
cupressaceous origin, in particular the tree Parataxodium (McKellar et al. 2008).
Potential parasitoid taxa of Coleoptera are Caraboidea (Carabidae), Staphylinoidea
(Staphylinidae), and Cleroidea (Cleridae). One, unidentified, triungulin larva unassignable to family (Skidmore 2018) represents a parasitoid Strepsiptera. Dipteran
parasitoid taxa are still relatively modest compared to earlier occurrences, consisting of taxa in Bibionomorpha (Cecidomyiidae, Mycetophilidae), Asiloidea
(Bombyliidae), Empidoidea (Empididae) and Aschiza (Phoridae). No parasitoid
taxa of Neuroptera, Trichoptera or Lepidoptera are present. For Hymenoptera, the
parasitoid lineages are Evanioidea (Aulacidae), Trigonalyroidea (Mametshidae),
Proctotrupoidea (Diapriidae, Proctotrupidae), Cynipoidea (Figitidae, Liopteridae),
Platygastroidea (Platygastridae, Scelionidae), Ceraphronoidea (Ceraphronidae,
Megaspilidae, Stigmaphronidae), Mymarommatoidea (Mymarommatidae),
C. C. Labandeira and L. Li
Pipunculidae). Also diverse were hymenopteran parasitoid taxa that consisted of
Stephanoidea (
†
Aptenoperissidae,
†
Myanmarinidae, Stephanidae), Megalyroidea
(Megalyridae), Trigonalyroidea (
†
Mametshidae), Evanioidea (Aulacidae, Evaniidae,
Gasteruptiidae,
†
Othniodellithidae,
†
Praeaulacidae), Proctotrupoidea (Austroniidae,
Diapriidae, Heloridae, Pelecinidae,
†
Peleserphidae,
†
Spathiopterygidae),
Platygastroidea (Platygastridae, Scelionidae), Ceraphronoidea (Ceraphronidae,
Megaspilidae,
†
Stigmaphronidae), Mymarommatoidea (
†
Gallorommatidae,
Mymarommatidae), Serphitoidea (
†
Serphitidae), Chalcidoidea (Chalcidae, indeterminate family, Mymaridae), Ichneumonoidea (Braconidae, Ichneumonidae), and
the aculeate Chrysidoidea (Bethylidae, Chrysididae, Dryinidae, Embolemidae,
Scolebythidae), Vespoidea (Pompilidae, Rhopalosomatidae, Sapygidae,
Sierolomorphidae, Tiphiidae, Vespidae) and Apoidea (Crabronidae, Sphecidae)
(Grimaldi et al. 2002; Ross et al. 2010; Engel et al. 2012a; Cai and Huang 2014; Cai
et al. 2017, 2018; Li et al. 2017a, b, 2018a, b; Ross 2018 and updates) (Table 11.1).
Parasitoid Hymenoptera in the Myanmar Biota numbers 42 families, representing a
third more than that of the earlier Jehol Biota. There are approximately 90
hymenopteran species, about an increase of three times that of the Jehol Biota. The
Myanmar Biota represents a considerable expansion in the number of parasitoid
species, indicating that these deposits record a major parasitoid diversification event
following Phase 2 but before deposition of the Myanmar Biota (Fig. 11.19).
However, some of this increase in Myanmar parasitoid diversity could be attributable to exceptional preservation and a concerted effort to mine, process and expand
tonnages of material sold abroad (Sokol 2019).
The second major deposit of note, also representing Phase 3, is Canadian Amber,
originating from Grassy Lake in southern Alberta, but also occurring at Cedar Lake
in western Manitoba where it is secondarily deposited (McKellar and Wolfe 2010).
The stratigraphic source of the amber at Grassy Lake are six sub-bituminous coal
seams of the Foremost Formation (Pike 1995) that have a late Campanian age,
approximately equivalent to 78–72 Ma (Walker et al. 2013), about 24 million years
after deposition of Myanmar Amber. The source of the amber initially was thought
to be araucariaceous, but plant anatomical and spectroscopic analyses indicate a
cupressaceous origin, in particular the tree Parataxodium (McKellar et al. 2008).
Potential parasitoid taxa of Coleoptera are Caraboidea (Carabidae), Staphylinoidea
(Staphylinidae), and Cleroidea (Cleridae). One, unidentified, triungulin larva unassignable to family (Skidmore 2018) represents a parasitoid Strepsiptera. Dipteran
parasitoid taxa are still relatively modest compared to earlier occurrences, consisting of taxa in Bibionomorpha (Cecidomyiidae, Mycetophilidae), Asiloidea
(Bombyliidae), Empidoidea (Empididae) and Aschiza (Phoridae). No parasitoid
taxa of Neuroptera, Trichoptera or Lepidoptera are present. For Hymenoptera, the
parasitoid lineages are Evanioidea (Aulacidae), Trigonalyroidea (Mametshidae),
Proctotrupoidea (Diapriidae, Proctotrupidae), Cynipoidea (Figitidae, Liopteridae),
Platygastroidea (Platygastridae, Scelionidae), Ceraphronoidea (Ceraphronidae,
Megaspilidae, Stigmaphronidae), Mymarommatoidea (Mymarommatidae),
C. C. Labandeira and L. Li