384
11.2.5.2 Koinobiont Parasitoidism Versus Idiobiont Parasitoidism
Koinobiont parasitoids initially immobilize but continually allow their host to grow.
After a parasitoid oviposits an egg on its host, a koinobiont parasitoid allows its host
to develop to maturity while simultaneously feeding on it. Koinobiont development
of the host frequently is promoted by endoparasitoidism. By contrast, after initial
oviposition, an idiobiont parasitoid prevents further development of its host while
feeding on it, resulting subsequently in limited host resources (Haeselbarth 1979).
Idiobiont development of its host is frequently fostered by ectoparasitoidism.
11.2.5.3 Solitary Versus Gregarious Parasitoidism
Solitary parasitoids are those that feed alone on a host without other parasitoid
accompaniment (Mackauer and Chau 2001). Gregarious parasitoids, by contrast,
feed on a host in multiple numbers, ranging from two to thousands such that typically one parasitoid individual remains after all conspecifics have died (Mackauer
and Chau 2001). Generally, solitary versus gregarious parasitoidism is a property of
the particular parasitoid species and is regulated by complex hormonal interactions
with the host and other potential colonizing parasitoids.
11.2.5.4 Superparasitoidism Versus Multiparasitoidism
Superparasitoidism is a condition whereby multiple eggs, typically many, are oviposited on or in the same host individual by a female of the same parasitoid species
(Fisher 1961; Mackauer and Chau 2001). However, if a second parasitoid species
lays eggs in addition to the first parasitoid species, multiparasitoidism is the result
(Fisher 1961). In either situation, monospecific or heterospecific competition ensues
among the parasitoid larvae for limited resources of the host. Superparasitoidism
sometimes is accompanied by the oviposition of a single polyembryonic egg that
produces multiple, genetically identical larvae that number from tens to thousands
of individuals (Silvestri 1906). Unlike gregarious parasitism, multiple, often many,
individuals survive to complete their development on the same host.
11.2.5.5 Hyperparasitoidism
Primary parasitoids have a simple relationship between a host and its parasitoid.
Secondary parasitoids, or hyperparasitoids, are facultative or obligate parasitoids of
a primary parasitoid on the same source host. Tertiary parasitoids have been documented (Godfray 1994; Frank and Gillett-Kaufman 2006), and up to five levels of
hyperparasitoidism can occur in the case of oak galls that involve ichneumon wasps
(Askew 1961). Facultative hyperparasitoids are situations where a parasitoid can
attack either a host or the parasitoid of that host, as opposed to an obligate hyperparasitoid that can only attack a parasitoid of the host (Godfray 1994). Obligate
C. C. Labandeira and L. Li
11.2.5.2 Koinobiont Parasitoidism Versus Idiobiont Parasitoidism
Koinobiont parasitoids initially immobilize but continually allow their host to grow.
After a parasitoid oviposits an egg on its host, a koinobiont parasitoid allows its host
to develop to maturity while simultaneously feeding on it. Koinobiont development
of the host frequently is promoted by endoparasitoidism. By contrast, after initial
oviposition, an idiobiont parasitoid prevents further development of its host while
feeding on it, resulting subsequently in limited host resources (Haeselbarth 1979).
Idiobiont development of its host is frequently fostered by ectoparasitoidism.
11.2.5.3 Solitary Versus Gregarious Parasitoidism
Solitary parasitoids are those that feed alone on a host without other parasitoid
accompaniment (Mackauer and Chau 2001). Gregarious parasitoids, by contrast,
feed on a host in multiple numbers, ranging from two to thousands such that typically one parasitoid individual remains after all conspecifics have died (Mackauer
and Chau 2001). Generally, solitary versus gregarious parasitoidism is a property of
the particular parasitoid species and is regulated by complex hormonal interactions
with the host and other potential colonizing parasitoids.
11.2.5.4 Superparasitoidism Versus Multiparasitoidism
Superparasitoidism is a condition whereby multiple eggs, typically many, are oviposited on or in the same host individual by a female of the same parasitoid species
(Fisher 1961; Mackauer and Chau 2001). However, if a second parasitoid species
lays eggs in addition to the first parasitoid species, multiparasitoidism is the result
(Fisher 1961). In either situation, monospecific or heterospecific competition ensues
among the parasitoid larvae for limited resources of the host. Superparasitoidism
sometimes is accompanied by the oviposition of a single polyembryonic egg that
produces multiple, genetically identical larvae that number from tens to thousands
of individuals (Silvestri 1906). Unlike gregarious parasitism, multiple, often many,
individuals survive to complete their development on the same host.
11.2.5.5 Hyperparasitoidism
Primary parasitoids have a simple relationship between a host and its parasitoid.
Secondary parasitoids, or hyperparasitoids, are facultative or obligate parasitoids of
a primary parasitoid on the same source host. Tertiary parasitoids have been documented (Godfray 1994; Frank and Gillett-Kaufman 2006), and up to five levels of
hyperparasitoidism can occur in the case of oak galls that involve ichneumon wasps
(Askew 1961). Facultative hyperparasitoids are situations where a parasitoid can
attack either a host or the parasitoid of that host, as opposed to an obligate hyperparasitoid that can only attack a parasitoid of the host (Godfray 1994). Obligate
C. C. Labandeira and L. Li