Harike has emerged as a large silt trap and, coupled with continued discharge of
pollutants from upstream townships brought into Harike by Rivers Sutlej and Beas,
has been perennially infested with water hyacinth (Singh et al. 2020). Regulation of
water for hydropower in Loktak has converted a naturally pulsating wetland into a
reservoir, causing loss of migratory fisheries and severe degradation of the habitat
of globally endangered deer species, Rucervus eldii, which inhabits the wetland
(Trisal and Manihar 2004; Tuboi et al. 2018). In Vembanad, the changes in
hydrological regimes have led to a loss of migratory fish species, concentration of
pollutants and reduced flood buffering capacity of the estuary (James et al. 1997;
Kumar et al. 2013). As water abstraction has exceeded the availability in
Sasthamcotta, the wetland has faced bouts of prolonged drying (WISA 2017a).
In the last six decades, India has become the largest groundwater user in the
world, accounting for nearly 65% of the country’s gross irrigated area, abstracted
collectively from *30 million wells, bore wells and tube wells (Kulkarni et al.
2015; Smilovic et al. 2015). This trend emerged in the sixties, wherein the use of
mechanized pumping technologies made groundwater extraction in large quantities
possible, also matching the advent of Green Revolution, which created a high water
demand for irrigating the high yielding variety crops (Shah et al. 2012). Rapid
expansion in groundwater use for irrigation and drinking water purposes has been
encouraged by several factors such as flexibility and timeliness of water supply, the
poor service delivery of public water supply systems, newer pump technologies
increasing affordability of sinking and operating a tube well, and government
electricity subsidies, which shielded farmers from full cost of pumping (The World
Bank 2010; Shah et al. 2012). The current situation of groundwater is alarming,
with falling water levels and reduced well yields in several parts of the country
(Tiwari et al. 2009; GoI 2019a), mobilization of heavy metals from deep aquifers
(Kulkarni et al. 2015), inequity of endowments and an invidious nexus of mutual
dependence between water, food and energy ( Shah et al. 2012; Kulkarni et al.
2015). The creation of a ‘water-scavenging’ irrigation economy (Narayanamoorthy
2007; Shah 2009) has also meant reduced relevance of gravity flow irrigation from
surface storages such as wetlands (Shah 2012). For groundwater-dependent wetlands such as those prevalent in northern India, lowered water levels and fragmentation of river connectivity led to shrinkage in natural inundation regimes. The
declining significance of tanks meant they were allowed to decay, silted and at
many instances constructed upon (Narayanamoorthy 2007).
Water resources development efforts have singularly focused on freshwater, and
thereby water and sediment regime needs of coastal ecosystems have been comprehensively compromised. In several mangrove areas, reduction in freshwater
inflow has been identified as a significant causative factor for an increase in salinity
resulting in reduced habitats of salinity-sensitive species and dominance of high
salt-tolerant ones (Kathiresan 2010; Giri et al. 2014; Gnanappazham and Selvam
2014; Sathyanathan et al. 2014). Estuaries such as Ashtamudi (Kerala) are gradually progressing towards hypersaline conditions, with reduced productivity and a
high degree of transformation in species assemblages (WISA 2017b). Shrinkage of
deltas due to sediment deprivation has been observed as a significant challenge in
Wetlands and Water Management: Finding a Common Ground
113
pollutants from upstream townships brought into Harike by Rivers Sutlej and Beas,
has been perennially infested with water hyacinth (Singh et al. 2020). Regulation of
water for hydropower in Loktak has converted a naturally pulsating wetland into a
reservoir, causing loss of migratory fisheries and severe degradation of the habitat
of globally endangered deer species, Rucervus eldii, which inhabits the wetland
(Trisal and Manihar 2004; Tuboi et al. 2018). In Vembanad, the changes in
hydrological regimes have led to a loss of migratory fish species, concentration of
pollutants and reduced flood buffering capacity of the estuary (James et al. 1997;
Kumar et al. 2013). As water abstraction has exceeded the availability in
Sasthamcotta, the wetland has faced bouts of prolonged drying (WISA 2017a).
In the last six decades, India has become the largest groundwater user in the
world, accounting for nearly 65% of the country’s gross irrigated area, abstracted
collectively from *30 million wells, bore wells and tube wells (Kulkarni et al.
2015; Smilovic et al. 2015). This trend emerged in the sixties, wherein the use of
mechanized pumping technologies made groundwater extraction in large quantities
possible, also matching the advent of Green Revolution, which created a high water
demand for irrigating the high yielding variety crops (Shah et al. 2012). Rapid
expansion in groundwater use for irrigation and drinking water purposes has been
encouraged by several factors such as flexibility and timeliness of water supply, the
poor service delivery of public water supply systems, newer pump technologies
increasing affordability of sinking and operating a tube well, and government
electricity subsidies, which shielded farmers from full cost of pumping (The World
Bank 2010; Shah et al. 2012). The current situation of groundwater is alarming,
with falling water levels and reduced well yields in several parts of the country
(Tiwari et al. 2009; GoI 2019a), mobilization of heavy metals from deep aquifers
(Kulkarni et al. 2015), inequity of endowments and an invidious nexus of mutual
dependence between water, food and energy ( Shah et al. 2012; Kulkarni et al.
2015). The creation of a ‘water-scavenging’ irrigation economy (Narayanamoorthy
2007; Shah 2009) has also meant reduced relevance of gravity flow irrigation from
surface storages such as wetlands (Shah 2012). For groundwater-dependent wetlands such as those prevalent in northern India, lowered water levels and fragmentation of river connectivity led to shrinkage in natural inundation regimes. The
declining significance of tanks meant they were allowed to decay, silted and at
many instances constructed upon (Narayanamoorthy 2007).
Water resources development efforts have singularly focused on freshwater, and
thereby water and sediment regime needs of coastal ecosystems have been comprehensively compromised. In several mangrove areas, reduction in freshwater
inflow has been identified as a significant causative factor for an increase in salinity
resulting in reduced habitats of salinity-sensitive species and dominance of high
salt-tolerant ones (Kathiresan 2010; Giri et al. 2014; Gnanappazham and Selvam
2014; Sathyanathan et al. 2014). Estuaries such as Ashtamudi (Kerala) are gradually progressing towards hypersaline conditions, with reduced productivity and a
high degree of transformation in species assemblages (WISA 2017b). Shrinkage of
deltas due to sediment deprivation has been observed as a significant challenge in
Wetlands and Water Management: Finding a Common Ground
113