6.3.4 Organisations as Systems
An organisation is a purposeful system because:
(a) there is a common purpose
(b) the division of labour among the system components,
(c) the communication among the parts of the system, and
(d) an in-built decision-making and control function.
An organisation is considered an animate (living) system. It exhibits similar stress
and strain under conditions of lack or excess of matter, energy, or information, when
they are inputted or outputted. Anticipation of a stress (threat) can also cause a strain.
The difference, however, is that unlike an organism, an organisation possesses
elements which are purposeful.
6.3.5 The Systems Approach
The systems approach provides one way of solving problems (infrastructure, among
others) in society, through a practical thinking and philosophical methodology.
Basically, the problem is defined holistically, determining the desired objectives,
designing for the necessary change, and in assessing the design. Gigch (1974) calls it
a design methodology and an applied general systems theory with the following
characteristics:
(1) The way the system is connected by a set of objectives to superordinate systems,
defines the problem.
(2) The system’s objectives must be compared with respect to these superordinate
systems or the complete network.
(3) Existing designs should be compared to the optimum design by assessing
opportunity costs or the degree of divergence.
(4) The optimal design is rarely obtained through incremental improvement of
existing designs. A thorough planning and assessment of new proposals, offering creative and innovative differences from the present solution is required.
(5) Induction and synthesis should be used as new thinking processes for designing
systems, i.e. thinking of a new system, rather than trying to improve existing
systems through usual deductive and reductive methods.
(6) The planner should take a leading role, proposing possible solutions, rather than
be a follower, so that problems can be avoided and prevented from occurring
rather than looking for solutions later on.
There are six broad stages of system dynamics modelling. Each stage is supported
by one or more of the viewpoints discussed above. Table 6.2 gives the stages and the
associated viewpoints.
6.3 Systems Analysis in Infrastructure Sectors
165
An organisation is a purposeful system because:
(a) there is a common purpose
(b) the division of labour among the system components,
(c) the communication among the parts of the system, and
(d) an in-built decision-making and control function.
An organisation is considered an animate (living) system. It exhibits similar stress
and strain under conditions of lack or excess of matter, energy, or information, when
they are inputted or outputted. Anticipation of a stress (threat) can also cause a strain.
The difference, however, is that unlike an organism, an organisation possesses
elements which are purposeful.
6.3.5 The Systems Approach
The systems approach provides one way of solving problems (infrastructure, among
others) in society, through a practical thinking and philosophical methodology.
Basically, the problem is defined holistically, determining the desired objectives,
designing for the necessary change, and in assessing the design. Gigch (1974) calls it
a design methodology and an applied general systems theory with the following
characteristics:
(1) The way the system is connected by a set of objectives to superordinate systems,
defines the problem.
(2) The system’s objectives must be compared with respect to these superordinate
systems or the complete network.
(3) Existing designs should be compared to the optimum design by assessing
opportunity costs or the degree of divergence.
(4) The optimal design is rarely obtained through incremental improvement of
existing designs. A thorough planning and assessment of new proposals, offering creative and innovative differences from the present solution is required.
(5) Induction and synthesis should be used as new thinking processes for designing
systems, i.e. thinking of a new system, rather than trying to improve existing
systems through usual deductive and reductive methods.
(6) The planner should take a leading role, proposing possible solutions, rather than
be a follower, so that problems can be avoided and prevented from occurring
rather than looking for solutions later on.
There are six broad stages of system dynamics modelling. Each stage is supported
by one or more of the viewpoints discussed above. Table 6.2 gives the stages and the
associated viewpoints.
6.3 Systems Analysis in Infrastructure Sectors
165