assistance in a few rare cases, when his simple apothecary laboratory prevented him
from performing the experiments he envisioned, such as the reduction of manganese and molybdenum oxide and the decomposition of silver carbonate with a
burning glass. In Scheele’s publications, the experiments are extremely well
described and it is typically not difficult to reproduce his experiments.
1 In contrast,
Bergman’s experiments are not so well described and in order to reproduce his
work, more chemical experience and improvisation is needed. While Scheele’s
research was entirely devoted to chemistry, Bergman had a much broader interest.
During his career, he also wrote auroras, lightning conductors, leeches, caterpillars,
geology, bee keeping, mineralogy, crystallography and meteorology. One of the
more bizarre research projects that Bergman embarked on was to prepare ethanol
from faeces. The idea came from his former student Johan Gottlieb Gahn (1745–
1818; Sect. 13.1), who told Bergman in May 1772 that peasants in Falun had
prepared vodka from human faeces due to lack of grain [1]. Bergman took the
information seriously and apparently asked Scheele to purify sodium carbonate for
the project.
1.1 Sweden in the Eighteenth Century
As a protestant country, Sweden entered the Thirty Years War in 1630. Troops lead
by Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus (Gustav II Adolf; 1594–1632, King from
1611) were so successful that large areas of present day Germany became Swedish
provinces after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. This is important for the present
storey, as Scheele’s ancestors now became Swedish citizens. Swedish Pomerania
(Vorpommern), where Scheele was born, remained Swedish until 1815, two decades after Scheele’s death.
Throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, Sweden was
involved in a number of wars with archenemies Denmark, Poland, and Russia, and
given Sweden’s small population (approximately 1,4 million in 1700), it became
increasingly difficult to protect the overseas provinces. While Gustavus Adolphus‘
troops were largely composed by German soldiers under Swedish command, King
Charles XII (Karl XII; king 1697–1718) had to fight his wars in Russia largely with
Swedish men. The large costs and the high death rates lead to an increased
opposition against the sovereign King. The King died in 1718 during the siege of
the fortress of Fredriksten in Norway.
2 As Charles XII had made the controversial
decision that he would only marry for love and not as a part of a political scheme,
1
Provided, of course, one can access the correct starting materials. Another complicating factor is
that Scheele had no means to measure high temperatures, and for some experiments a charcoal fire
would be needed. A word of caution could also be in place: some of the experiments are very
dangerous to perform and can, if proper safety measures are not taken, result in serious injuries or
death.
2
The circumstances of his death are unclear, he may either have been killed by an enemy bullet, or
assassinated.
2
1 Introduction
from performing the experiments he envisioned, such as the reduction of manganese and molybdenum oxide and the decomposition of silver carbonate with a
burning glass. In Scheele’s publications, the experiments are extremely well
described and it is typically not difficult to reproduce his experiments.
1 In contrast,
Bergman’s experiments are not so well described and in order to reproduce his
work, more chemical experience and improvisation is needed. While Scheele’s
research was entirely devoted to chemistry, Bergman had a much broader interest.
During his career, he also wrote auroras, lightning conductors, leeches, caterpillars,
geology, bee keeping, mineralogy, crystallography and meteorology. One of the
more bizarre research projects that Bergman embarked on was to prepare ethanol
from faeces. The idea came from his former student Johan Gottlieb Gahn (1745–
1818; Sect. 13.1), who told Bergman in May 1772 that peasants in Falun had
prepared vodka from human faeces due to lack of grain [1]. Bergman took the
information seriously and apparently asked Scheele to purify sodium carbonate for
the project.
1.1 Sweden in the Eighteenth Century
As a protestant country, Sweden entered the Thirty Years War in 1630. Troops lead
by Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus (Gustav II Adolf; 1594–1632, King from
1611) were so successful that large areas of present day Germany became Swedish
provinces after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. This is important for the present
storey, as Scheele’s ancestors now became Swedish citizens. Swedish Pomerania
(Vorpommern), where Scheele was born, remained Swedish until 1815, two decades after Scheele’s death.
Throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, Sweden was
involved in a number of wars with archenemies Denmark, Poland, and Russia, and
given Sweden’s small population (approximately 1,4 million in 1700), it became
increasingly difficult to protect the overseas provinces. While Gustavus Adolphus‘
troops were largely composed by German soldiers under Swedish command, King
Charles XII (Karl XII; king 1697–1718) had to fight his wars in Russia largely with
Swedish men. The large costs and the high death rates lead to an increased
opposition against the sovereign King. The King died in 1718 during the siege of
the fortress of Fredriksten in Norway.
2 As Charles XII had made the controversial
decision that he would only marry for love and not as a part of a political scheme,
1
Provided, of course, one can access the correct starting materials. Another complicating factor is
that Scheele had no means to measure high temperatures, and for some experiments a charcoal fire
would be needed. A word of caution could also be in place: some of the experiments are very
dangerous to perform and can, if proper safety measures are not taken, result in serious injuries or
death.
2
The circumstances of his death are unclear, he may either have been killed by an enemy bullet, or
assassinated.
2
1 Introduction