exchange capacity (CEC), exchangeable calcium, potassium and magnesium.
Annual foliar survey should be undertaken followed by laboratory analysis of
macro-nutrients for nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, magnesium and calcium,
and micro-nutrients of boron, copper, zinc and iron (if necessary).
Potassium deficiency is a major symptom usually that occurs in peatland plantings. Peat is inherently poor in exchangeable potassium with high calcium and
magnesium; this results in frequent potassium deficiency if the palms are not
adequately fertilized. The deficiency symptom is seen as confluent orange spotting.
Boron deficiency is exhibited in many forms. The common early symptom of boron
deficiency is hook leaf on young pinnae of young fronds. Copper deficiency is
common in oil palm planted in peatland. Copper levels in peatlands are generally
low and whatever available is considered immobilized due to high organic matter.
Early symptom of copper deficiency is seen on young fronds which are generally
shorter, yellowish green and shows chlorotic speckling on the pinnae. As the
symptom further progresses, the distal end of pinnae becomes necrotic, followed
by desiccation developing from the tip of pinnae to downwards. Zinc deficiency is
reported in deep peatlands and along road or drain edges. The symptom is the
development of pale green to whitish interveinal chlorotic streaks in the pinnae of
young opened fronds. These nutrient deficiencies can be easily addressed by appropriate fertilization with the missing nutrients.
18.5.3 Pests and Diseases
Oil palm plantations on peatland are affected by a broad range of pests and diseases.
Fortunately, long life and relatively high structural complexity of an oil palm
plantation make it particularly appropriate for Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
strategies (Parish et al. 2019a). IPM within oil palm has a long and established
history, as well as a series of notable successes, particularly the establishment of
Barn Owls for rat control. At the core of the IPM approach is management to
maintain and enhance the numbers of natural enemies to keep pest numbers below
economically damaging levels. To achieve this, it is crucial to understand the life
cycle and ecology of the pest species; to regularly monitor pest numbers (allowing a
rapid response); to understand the level at which pest numbers become economically
damaging; and to identify a suite of key management interventions that can be
applied to target pest but, as far as possible, leave the rest of the ecosystem
unaffected. Under this framework, pesticides are only used when pest numbers
reach damaging levels (Dewhurst and Marrs 2011)—generally defined using an
economic threshold (Wood 1972). Within oil palm, IPM represents a diverse range
of approaches, including targeted chemical applications, management to reduce pest
numbers and transmission and management to increase the numbers of natural
enemies and pathogens of pests.
The key success factor in IPM is early detection by regular census and speedy
treatment. In this respect, all peat estates should have permanent pest census teams.
520
F. Parish et al.
Annual foliar survey should be undertaken followed by laboratory analysis of
macro-nutrients for nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, magnesium and calcium,
and micro-nutrients of boron, copper, zinc and iron (if necessary).
Potassium deficiency is a major symptom usually that occurs in peatland plantings. Peat is inherently poor in exchangeable potassium with high calcium and
magnesium; this results in frequent potassium deficiency if the palms are not
adequately fertilized. The deficiency symptom is seen as confluent orange spotting.
Boron deficiency is exhibited in many forms. The common early symptom of boron
deficiency is hook leaf on young pinnae of young fronds. Copper deficiency is
common in oil palm planted in peatland. Copper levels in peatlands are generally
low and whatever available is considered immobilized due to high organic matter.
Early symptom of copper deficiency is seen on young fronds which are generally
shorter, yellowish green and shows chlorotic speckling on the pinnae. As the
symptom further progresses, the distal end of pinnae becomes necrotic, followed
by desiccation developing from the tip of pinnae to downwards. Zinc deficiency is
reported in deep peatlands and along road or drain edges. The symptom is the
development of pale green to whitish interveinal chlorotic streaks in the pinnae of
young opened fronds. These nutrient deficiencies can be easily addressed by appropriate fertilization with the missing nutrients.
18.5.3 Pests and Diseases
Oil palm plantations on peatland are affected by a broad range of pests and diseases.
Fortunately, long life and relatively high structural complexity of an oil palm
plantation make it particularly appropriate for Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
strategies (Parish et al. 2019a). IPM within oil palm has a long and established
history, as well as a series of notable successes, particularly the establishment of
Barn Owls for rat control. At the core of the IPM approach is management to
maintain and enhance the numbers of natural enemies to keep pest numbers below
economically damaging levels. To achieve this, it is crucial to understand the life
cycle and ecology of the pest species; to regularly monitor pest numbers (allowing a
rapid response); to understand the level at which pest numbers become economically
damaging; and to identify a suite of key management interventions that can be
applied to target pest but, as far as possible, leave the rest of the ecosystem
unaffected. Under this framework, pesticides are only used when pest numbers
reach damaging levels (Dewhurst and Marrs 2011)—generally defined using an
economic threshold (Wood 1972). Within oil palm, IPM represents a diverse range
of approaches, including targeted chemical applications, management to reduce pest
numbers and transmission and management to increase the numbers of natural
enemies and pathogens of pests.
The key success factor in IPM is early detection by regular census and speedy
treatment. In this respect, all peat estates should have permanent pest census teams.
520
F. Parish et al.