throughout East and Southeast Asia as a vegetable delicacy and as a source of
medicine and starch (Flach and Rumawas 1996).
The key marketable starch-producing species found along the edges of peat
swamps (wild or planted) is sago Metroxylon sagu. The starch from this species is
eaten and marketed throughout Indonesia, but is only known as a staple in Papua, the
Moluccas, and parts of Sumatra (Meranti, Riau, and Singkil, Aceh Islands) and
Sulawesi (Flach and Schuiling 1989). Starch from Metroxylon sagu is used in
producing a wide range of products including sugars (fructose, glucose, maltose,
and dextrose), noodles, monosodium glutamate, finishing agent for paper, glue gels,
sizing in textile industry, livestock and poultry feed, bio-ethanol, and so on (Janssen
and Widaretna 2017c). Sago starch production per hectare varies from 2–5 tons of
starch/ha/yr. in natural stands to 4–25 tons of starch/ha/yr. for smallholders and
industrial plantations, depending on the age of the plantation, variety (clone) types,
and management system thereof. On average, a production of 13 tons of starch/ha/yr.
is attained. Most of these figures are from cultivation on mineral soils, while average
production on peat soils is about 25% lower (Flach and Schuiling 1989).
14 PSF species produce edible oil and fat; these include seven tengkawang or
illipe nut species (various Shorea species, plus Vatica mangachapoi), candlenut
Aleurites moluccana, Garcinia morella (synonyms: Garcinia lateriflora and
Garcinia javanica), and five members of the soapnut family (Sapotaceae): Madhuca
motleyana, three Palaquium species (Palaquium burckii, Palaquium gutta,
Palaquium rostratum) and Payena maingayi (Van der Vossen and Umali 2001).
In the case of Sapotaceae, ripe seeds are extracted from the fruits, pressed, and heated
to generate the edible oil. Candlenut oil is both consumed (but limited, as there can
be mildly toxic side effects) and used for manufacturing candles, although the latter
has largely been supplanted over the past decades. Tengkawang has a long history of
being harvested for edible oils, especially in Kalimantan where six of the seven
species grow and whose nuts are harvested every year, especially during mast
fruiting years that occur every 3–5 years (Peters 1996; Coolen 2014). Tengkawang
or illipe butter is highly valued and used among others for cosmetics and as a cocoa
butter substitute (Janssen and Widaretna 2017a). Six species are listed by PROSEA
as having a major use, including Aleurites moluccana, Garcinia morella, and two
illipe nut species (Shorea macrophylla and Shorea stenoptera) are listed as such
because of their edible oil/fat (Van der Vossen and Umali 2001).
Seven edible nut-producing species have been recorded to grow in Indonesian
PSFs. Canarium littorale is related to the Java almond (Canarium amboinense), and
the taste of the nut is reportedly similar, i.e. quite sweet and tasty (Heyne 1950).
Seeds of Indian almond or ketapang (Terminalia catappa) are also a good substitute
for almonds, although when consumed in large amounts may cause diarrhea. Nuts of
Elateriospermum tapos species are either boiled or roasted (popped) and eaten,
especially in South Sumatra, and in Java they are used in making certain types of
chili sauce or paste (sambal). In South Sumatra, the fatty seeds of Pometia pinnata
species are roasted and eaten (Heyne 1950). Kemiri (Aleurites moluccana) are used
for its edible oils/fats, and for illumination (hence the common name “candlenut”)
but are also eaten as nuts. Finschia chloroxantha is related to Macadamia and the
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W. Giesen
medicine and starch (Flach and Rumawas 1996).
The key marketable starch-producing species found along the edges of peat
swamps (wild or planted) is sago Metroxylon sagu. The starch from this species is
eaten and marketed throughout Indonesia, but is only known as a staple in Papua, the
Moluccas, and parts of Sumatra (Meranti, Riau, and Singkil, Aceh Islands) and
Sulawesi (Flach and Schuiling 1989). Starch from Metroxylon sagu is used in
producing a wide range of products including sugars (fructose, glucose, maltose,
and dextrose), noodles, monosodium glutamate, finishing agent for paper, glue gels,
sizing in textile industry, livestock and poultry feed, bio-ethanol, and so on (Janssen
and Widaretna 2017c). Sago starch production per hectare varies from 2–5 tons of
starch/ha/yr. in natural stands to 4–25 tons of starch/ha/yr. for smallholders and
industrial plantations, depending on the age of the plantation, variety (clone) types,
and management system thereof. On average, a production of 13 tons of starch/ha/yr.
is attained. Most of these figures are from cultivation on mineral soils, while average
production on peat soils is about 25% lower (Flach and Schuiling 1989).
14 PSF species produce edible oil and fat; these include seven tengkawang or
illipe nut species (various Shorea species, plus Vatica mangachapoi), candlenut
Aleurites moluccana, Garcinia morella (synonyms: Garcinia lateriflora and
Garcinia javanica), and five members of the soapnut family (Sapotaceae): Madhuca
motleyana, three Palaquium species (Palaquium burckii, Palaquium gutta,
Palaquium rostratum) and Payena maingayi (Van der Vossen and Umali 2001).
In the case of Sapotaceae, ripe seeds are extracted from the fruits, pressed, and heated
to generate the edible oil. Candlenut oil is both consumed (but limited, as there can
be mildly toxic side effects) and used for manufacturing candles, although the latter
has largely been supplanted over the past decades. Tengkawang has a long history of
being harvested for edible oils, especially in Kalimantan where six of the seven
species grow and whose nuts are harvested every year, especially during mast
fruiting years that occur every 3–5 years (Peters 1996; Coolen 2014). Tengkawang
or illipe butter is highly valued and used among others for cosmetics and as a cocoa
butter substitute (Janssen and Widaretna 2017a). Six species are listed by PROSEA
as having a major use, including Aleurites moluccana, Garcinia morella, and two
illipe nut species (Shorea macrophylla and Shorea stenoptera) are listed as such
because of their edible oil/fat (Van der Vossen and Umali 2001).
Seven edible nut-producing species have been recorded to grow in Indonesian
PSFs. Canarium littorale is related to the Java almond (Canarium amboinense), and
the taste of the nut is reportedly similar, i.e. quite sweet and tasty (Heyne 1950).
Seeds of Indian almond or ketapang (Terminalia catappa) are also a good substitute
for almonds, although when consumed in large amounts may cause diarrhea. Nuts of
Elateriospermum tapos species are either boiled or roasted (popped) and eaten,
especially in South Sumatra, and in Java they are used in making certain types of
chili sauce or paste (sambal). In South Sumatra, the fatty seeds of Pometia pinnata
species are roasted and eaten (Heyne 1950). Kemiri (Aleurites moluccana) are used
for its edible oils/fats, and for illumination (hence the common name “candlenut”)
but are also eaten as nuts. Finschia chloroxantha is related to Macadamia and the
416
W. Giesen