the peat water as far as up to 500 m from the canal and would draw down the water
table around 50–75 cm in the peat swamp forest from initial stage (Astiani et al.
2017). Another study by Ritzema et al. (2014) also reported that the effect of a canal
establishment could lower the water table as far as up to 1000 m. The lower water
table induces the peat oxidation by the microbial decomposition process because of
the increase of O 2 supply and peat temperature. The greenhouse gas emission,
mostly CO 2 , related to the drainage establishment in peatland ecosystems has been
widely reported by Couwenberg et al. (2009), Hirano et al. (2012), and Jauhiainen
and Silvennoinen (2012). In addition to the increase of greenhouse gas emissions,
the drainage would also induce peat subsidence (Couwenberg et al. 2009; Hooijer
et al. 2012; Ritzema et al. 2014) and also have an effect to the tree growth and the
changes of physical chemistry of peat soil (Astiani et al. 2017). In total, the
unmanaged drainage establishment following the peat swamp forest conversion
has changed the peat swamp forest composition, structures, functions, and made it
more vulnerable to the fire (Wösten et al. 2006).
Peat swamp forest degradation that was triggered by forest conversion and
drainage is only part of the elements in the cycle of forest destruction. The degraded
dryness-forest floor as a result of logging and drainage is the pre-condition for the
more significant threat, a fire. Wildfires and repeated unwanted fires are the most
prominent elements in peat swamp forest destruction. It not only destroys the peat
swamp forest ecosystems but also causes a massive loss for the local communities
and creates unhealth and broader social problems. In Indonesia, the wildfires in
peatland ecosystems have been detected since 1800 and mostly related to the drier
weather condition during ENSO (Page and Hooijer 2016). Although there were
“great fire events” in 1982–1983, 1987, and 1994 in Kalimantan, the national level
paid serious attention to forest fires only after 1997–1998. The government publicly
acknowledged that the forest fires were no longer considered as a result of shifting
cultivators during the drier weather, but involving the large-scale companies clearing
up the land for oil palm and timber plantations (Page et al. 2002; Tacconi et al.
2006).
In the 2015 forest fire, Central Kalimantan had the highest hotspot density with
around 197 hotspots/1000 km
2 compared to all provinces in Indonesia. These were
mainly located in the deforested and tall shrub/secondary forest in peatlands. The fire
activities in the deforested peatlands could reach 30 times higher compared to the
pristine peat swamp forest (Miettinen et al. 2017). The recurrent uncontrolled fire
events usually occur in the edge of degraded peat swamp forests, and eventually the
degraded peat swamp forests change into grassland. The land cover change from
forestland into grassland has passed the ecological threshold (tipping point) making
it impossible to regenerate without human intervention. Furthermore, the new
degraded forests and grassland areas contribute positive feedback to the fire event
cycle. The sequential process of peat degradation and deforestation and land cover
change due to repeated fire events has been thoroughly described in Page et al.
(2009) and Hoscilo et al. (2011) in the context of Central Kalimantan. This process is
unlikely to decrease, given the fact that the contributing elements to the unwanted
fire events are still in place, i.e., drainage systems, degraded peatlands, unwise
13 Management Practice and Restoration of the Peat Swamp Forest in. . .
393
table around 50–75 cm in the peat swamp forest from initial stage (Astiani et al.
2017). Another study by Ritzema et al. (2014) also reported that the effect of a canal
establishment could lower the water table as far as up to 1000 m. The lower water
table induces the peat oxidation by the microbial decomposition process because of
the increase of O 2 supply and peat temperature. The greenhouse gas emission,
mostly CO 2 , related to the drainage establishment in peatland ecosystems has been
widely reported by Couwenberg et al. (2009), Hirano et al. (2012), and Jauhiainen
and Silvennoinen (2012). In addition to the increase of greenhouse gas emissions,
the drainage would also induce peat subsidence (Couwenberg et al. 2009; Hooijer
et al. 2012; Ritzema et al. 2014) and also have an effect to the tree growth and the
changes of physical chemistry of peat soil (Astiani et al. 2017). In total, the
unmanaged drainage establishment following the peat swamp forest conversion
has changed the peat swamp forest composition, structures, functions, and made it
more vulnerable to the fire (Wösten et al. 2006).
Peat swamp forest degradation that was triggered by forest conversion and
drainage is only part of the elements in the cycle of forest destruction. The degraded
dryness-forest floor as a result of logging and drainage is the pre-condition for the
more significant threat, a fire. Wildfires and repeated unwanted fires are the most
prominent elements in peat swamp forest destruction. It not only destroys the peat
swamp forest ecosystems but also causes a massive loss for the local communities
and creates unhealth and broader social problems. In Indonesia, the wildfires in
peatland ecosystems have been detected since 1800 and mostly related to the drier
weather condition during ENSO (Page and Hooijer 2016). Although there were
“great fire events” in 1982–1983, 1987, and 1994 in Kalimantan, the national level
paid serious attention to forest fires only after 1997–1998. The government publicly
acknowledged that the forest fires were no longer considered as a result of shifting
cultivators during the drier weather, but involving the large-scale companies clearing
up the land for oil palm and timber plantations (Page et al. 2002; Tacconi et al.
2006).
In the 2015 forest fire, Central Kalimantan had the highest hotspot density with
around 197 hotspots/1000 km
2 compared to all provinces in Indonesia. These were
mainly located in the deforested and tall shrub/secondary forest in peatlands. The fire
activities in the deforested peatlands could reach 30 times higher compared to the
pristine peat swamp forest (Miettinen et al. 2017). The recurrent uncontrolled fire
events usually occur in the edge of degraded peat swamp forests, and eventually the
degraded peat swamp forests change into grassland. The land cover change from
forestland into grassland has passed the ecological threshold (tipping point) making
it impossible to regenerate without human intervention. Furthermore, the new
degraded forests and grassland areas contribute positive feedback to the fire event
cycle. The sequential process of peat degradation and deforestation and land cover
change due to repeated fire events has been thoroughly described in Page et al.
(2009) and Hoscilo et al. (2011) in the context of Central Kalimantan. This process is
unlikely to decrease, given the fact that the contributing elements to the unwanted
fire events are still in place, i.e., drainage systems, degraded peatlands, unwise
13 Management Practice and Restoration of the Peat Swamp Forest in. . .
393