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dioxin- like substances, inadequate or excess fluoride, lead, mercury and highly hazardous pesticides. A total of 1.6 million lives and 45 million disability-adjusted
life-years were lost in 2016 due to exposures to chemicals [21].
Pregnant women and children are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects
of chemical hazards, with the so called “intellectual robbers” (e.g. lead, mercury
and polychlorinated biphenyl) as notable examples. Lead, is a toxic, cumulative
metal that may trigger neurotoxic effects particularly in vulnerable categories such
as children and pregnant women. Children are different from adults in several
respects, including differences in metabolism, diets, patterns of behavior, growth
and changes of organ systems and functions. For example, children absorb up to 4–5
times as much lead as adults. Furthermore, a systematic review found that a dose of
25 μg/kg body weight (Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake, PTWI) is in fact associated with a decrease of at least 3 intelligence quotient (IQ) points in children and
may cause learning disabilities, poor school performance, or violent behaviors [22,
23]. As consequence, the previously establish PTWI was retracted. Furthermore, it
was not possible to establish a new PTWI for lead that would be health protective,
while the recommendation resumed to using the dose-response analyses as guidelines for assessing the effect magnitude of dietary lead exposure in different populations [23]. Addressing lead exposure would prevent significantly deaths and
disabilities. Recent reductions in the use of lead in petrol, paint, plumbing and solder resulted in substantial reductions in lead levels measured in the blood. However,
significant sources of exposure to lead still remain, particularly in developing countries. Specifically, as of September 2018, only 36% of countries have legally binding controls on the production, import, sale and use of lead paints [23].
8.5.3 Biological Health Hazard Agents
Biological health hazard agents (biohazards) include bacteria, viruses, fungi, other
microorganisms and their associated toxins. They can pose a threat to human health
when they are inhaled, eaten or come in contact with skin. Biohazards can cause
illness such as food poisoning, tetanus, respiratory infections or parasite infection.
Biohazards are transmitted through food, air or water, from person to person or from
vectors (e.g. animals) to people. The adverse effects of biohazards range from mild,
allergic reactions, to serious medical conditions and even death. Furthermore, biohazards can be weaponized for use in bioterrorism.
Notable examples of biohazard agents include: Bacillus anthracis (bacterium
that causes anthrax), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B and C
viruses (HBV and HCV), Clostridium botulinum (bacterium whose toxin causes
botulism), Ebola virus (causes Ebola virus disease), Yersinia pestis (bacterium that
causes plague), ricin (produced from Ricinus communis, is the most toxic and easily
produced plant toxin), Variola virus (causes smallpox) or Zika virus (causes Zika
virus disease).
8 Risks and Consequences of Hazard Agents to Human Health
dioxin- like substances, inadequate or excess fluoride, lead, mercury and highly hazardous pesticides. A total of 1.6 million lives and 45 million disability-adjusted
life-years were lost in 2016 due to exposures to chemicals [21].
Pregnant women and children are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects
of chemical hazards, with the so called “intellectual robbers” (e.g. lead, mercury
and polychlorinated biphenyl) as notable examples. Lead, is a toxic, cumulative
metal that may trigger neurotoxic effects particularly in vulnerable categories such
as children and pregnant women. Children are different from adults in several
respects, including differences in metabolism, diets, patterns of behavior, growth
and changes of organ systems and functions. For example, children absorb up to 4–5
times as much lead as adults. Furthermore, a systematic review found that a dose of
25 μg/kg body weight (Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake, PTWI) is in fact associated with a decrease of at least 3 intelligence quotient (IQ) points in children and
may cause learning disabilities, poor school performance, or violent behaviors [22,
23]. As consequence, the previously establish PTWI was retracted. Furthermore, it
was not possible to establish a new PTWI for lead that would be health protective,
while the recommendation resumed to using the dose-response analyses as guidelines for assessing the effect magnitude of dietary lead exposure in different populations [23]. Addressing lead exposure would prevent significantly deaths and
disabilities. Recent reductions in the use of lead in petrol, paint, plumbing and solder resulted in substantial reductions in lead levels measured in the blood. However,
significant sources of exposure to lead still remain, particularly in developing countries. Specifically, as of September 2018, only 36% of countries have legally binding controls on the production, import, sale and use of lead paints [23].
8.5.3 Biological Health Hazard Agents
Biological health hazard agents (biohazards) include bacteria, viruses, fungi, other
microorganisms and their associated toxins. They can pose a threat to human health
when they are inhaled, eaten or come in contact with skin. Biohazards can cause
illness such as food poisoning, tetanus, respiratory infections or parasite infection.
Biohazards are transmitted through food, air or water, from person to person or from
vectors (e.g. animals) to people. The adverse effects of biohazards range from mild,
allergic reactions, to serious medical conditions and even death. Furthermore, biohazards can be weaponized for use in bioterrorism.
Notable examples of biohazard agents include: Bacillus anthracis (bacterium
that causes anthrax), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B and C
viruses (HBV and HCV), Clostridium botulinum (bacterium whose toxin causes
botulism), Ebola virus (causes Ebola virus disease), Yersinia pestis (bacterium that
causes plague), ricin (produced from Ricinus communis, is the most toxic and easily
produced plant toxin), Variola virus (causes smallpox) or Zika virus (causes Zika
virus disease).
8 Risks and Consequences of Hazard Agents to Human Health