acidification of soils even fertilization rate kept constant and reason behind this may
be the mineral saturation of the agro ecosystem before the initiation of study [138].
Contrarily, the application of theses macronutrient fertilizers (N, P, K, etc.) increased
the availability of micronutrients (Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe) due to lower pH effect of
fertilizers. The availability of micronutrients is also positively linked with SOC
and pH. Depending on the soil fertility status, the nitrogen fertilization rate varies
from 600 to 800 Kg/ha which some authors claimed quite high and a lower N
fertilization rate (i.e., 200 kg/ha) is quite sufficient to get maximum yield [139, 140].
Excessive application of nitrogen, while it intensifies the production, has also been
described to decrease bean density and quality. In South America, Dessalegn [141]
stated that coffee grown with substantial application of nitrogen fertilizer had
inferior, nimbler, and thinner body than that from unfertilized fields. Pinto et al.
[139] documented that higher (above 300 Kg/ha) and three applications of N per
annum lead to 57–105% leaching of fertilizer in the form of NO 3 -N due to its higher
mobilization rate through which it exited the root zone of coffee plant. The efficient
N recovery has been achieved by decreasing the N fertilizer and application rate. The
highest N recovery (up to 61%) is showed by 200–300 Kg/ha N rate with the seven
split applications. Paulos et al. [142] also reported the reduction in yield with further
incrementing the N after 300Kg/ha. Regarding soil nutrients, P is the second most
important nutrient after N and most of agro-ecosystem soils are considered lacking
the proper amount of this nutrient irrespective of addition of litter from shading or
other tress well known for their positive effects on P cycling in soil [143]. These
results showed us crucial role of other factors like soil conservation and management
practices, site-specific characteristics, features and kind added OM, microbial diversity and activity [144, 145]. Flowering and fruiting ability of the coffee plants is
largely expedited by the P. The role of P is also obvious in healthy and strong root
system of coffee plant and adequate supply of P is essential for plant vigor, strong
wood, sound fruit formation, and early maturity of coffee cherries and bumper yield
[134]. A 50% increase in yield is observed by increasing the level of P from 0 to
33 Kg/ha. No further increase in yield with increasing P input has been observed. As
P is immobile nutrient, so 45 cm from trunk and 15 cm depth are the optimal
horizontal or vertical distances of application [146]. It is also registered that combined interaction of NP showed better results than alone. No association has been
stated between phosphorus and the physical and organoleptic quality of the bean. K
also has crucial role in berry development, cherry maturation, and activate various
physiological enzymes important for the good quality coffee production [134]. A
high concentration of calcium and potassium in beans has been linked with a bitter
and “hard” taste.
C. arabica is a highland (as discuss above) plant where the soil erosion is more
obvious with its overwhelming effects on plants making them more vulnerable to
insect pest diseases as C. arabica plants are already more prone to insect pest attack
as compared to C. robusta. This pronounce vulnerability of coffee plants may lower
the cup quality by various means, i.e., affecting the coffee vegetative or fruit cherry
development, maturation, and ripening stages. On the other hand C. robusta is
cultivated in the lowland areas of Africa and North America. The average farm
666
A. Hameed et al.
be the mineral saturation of the agro ecosystem before the initiation of study [138].
Contrarily, the application of theses macronutrient fertilizers (N, P, K, etc.) increased
the availability of micronutrients (Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe) due to lower pH effect of
fertilizers. The availability of micronutrients is also positively linked with SOC
and pH. Depending on the soil fertility status, the nitrogen fertilization rate varies
from 600 to 800 Kg/ha which some authors claimed quite high and a lower N
fertilization rate (i.e., 200 kg/ha) is quite sufficient to get maximum yield [139, 140].
Excessive application of nitrogen, while it intensifies the production, has also been
described to decrease bean density and quality. In South America, Dessalegn [141]
stated that coffee grown with substantial application of nitrogen fertilizer had
inferior, nimbler, and thinner body than that from unfertilized fields. Pinto et al.
[139] documented that higher (above 300 Kg/ha) and three applications of N per
annum lead to 57–105% leaching of fertilizer in the form of NO 3 -N due to its higher
mobilization rate through which it exited the root zone of coffee plant. The efficient
N recovery has been achieved by decreasing the N fertilizer and application rate. The
highest N recovery (up to 61%) is showed by 200–300 Kg/ha N rate with the seven
split applications. Paulos et al. [142] also reported the reduction in yield with further
incrementing the N after 300Kg/ha. Regarding soil nutrients, P is the second most
important nutrient after N and most of agro-ecosystem soils are considered lacking
the proper amount of this nutrient irrespective of addition of litter from shading or
other tress well known for their positive effects on P cycling in soil [143]. These
results showed us crucial role of other factors like soil conservation and management
practices, site-specific characteristics, features and kind added OM, microbial diversity and activity [144, 145]. Flowering and fruiting ability of the coffee plants is
largely expedited by the P. The role of P is also obvious in healthy and strong root
system of coffee plant and adequate supply of P is essential for plant vigor, strong
wood, sound fruit formation, and early maturity of coffee cherries and bumper yield
[134]. A 50% increase in yield is observed by increasing the level of P from 0 to
33 Kg/ha. No further increase in yield with increasing P input has been observed. As
P is immobile nutrient, so 45 cm from trunk and 15 cm depth are the optimal
horizontal or vertical distances of application [146]. It is also registered that combined interaction of NP showed better results than alone. No association has been
stated between phosphorus and the physical and organoleptic quality of the bean. K
also has crucial role in berry development, cherry maturation, and activate various
physiological enzymes important for the good quality coffee production [134]. A
high concentration of calcium and potassium in beans has been linked with a bitter
and “hard” taste.
C. arabica is a highland (as discuss above) plant where the soil erosion is more
obvious with its overwhelming effects on plants making them more vulnerable to
insect pest diseases as C. arabica plants are already more prone to insect pest attack
as compared to C. robusta. This pronounce vulnerability of coffee plants may lower
the cup quality by various means, i.e., affecting the coffee vegetative or fruit cherry
development, maturation, and ripening stages. On the other hand C. robusta is
cultivated in the lowland areas of Africa and North America. The average farm
666
A. Hameed et al.